self concept
This component of self involves the beliefs people hold about who they are, as well as what characteristics they have.
reference groups
Festinger’s theory of social comparison states that people assess their own value based on those around them. This terms refers to the people to whom you feel are similar to you that serve as your basis of comparison.
relative deprivation
This phenomenon is produced when individuals feel their status is unfavorable compared to that of others. It is the belief that no matter how much a person gets, they deserve more.
social identity
This term refers to a person’s beliefs about the groups they belong to (nationally, religiously, etc.); it is a large part of their self concept.
self-schema
This term refers to a person’s mental representation of himself, which may shape that individual’s thoughts, experiences, and emotions.
self-fulfilling prophecy
This process occurs when a person does something that causes others to confirm that person’s impressions or beliefs or when schemas cause people to inadvertently lead people to behave according to our expectations.
attribution
This term deserves the process people go through to explain the causes of behaviors, both their own and that of others. This process helps us to understand and predict later actions, as well as try to control situations.
fundamental attribution error
This term describes people’s tendency to overattribute others’ behaviors to internal factors (i.e. their personality), instead of external factors (i.e. stress).
actor-observer bias
This term describe people’s tendency to attribute their own behavior to external causes, even while attributing the behavior of others to internal causes, due to the different kinds of information they have about the behavior of themselves versus the behavior of others. This phenomenon is especially common inappropriate or inadequate behavior is concerned.
self-serving bias
This term describes the tendency people have to take personal credit for success (internal cause), while blaming failures on external causes.
attitude
This tendency to act, feel, or think negatively or positively towards things in our environment is a part of social cognition that has been studied for an extremely long time. This tendency guides how we react to others, what we do, what we support, and so on. There are three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective/emotional (feelings), and behavioral (actions).
cognitive dissonance theory
This theory states that people want their attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts to be consistent with each another and with the individual’s behavior. When inconsistencies are noticed, people feel anxious and attempt to reduce the dissonance—often by changing attitudes rather than behaviors.
self-perception theory
This theory challenges the cognitive dissonance theory. It states that individuals often find themselves unsure about their attitudes, and thus must reflect on their behaviors under certain circumstances and then infer what their attitude should be. There is no tension in this process.
contact hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that prejudices and stereotypes towards certain people will diminish as contact with the people increases.
matching hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that individuals have a tendency to date, marry, or form relationships with people of the same level of physical attractiveness. People compromise because they are afraid of rejection from those with physical appeal greater than their own.
norms
This term refers to learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should or shouldn’t do in certain situations. We inherit them from our teacher, parents, and peers. They describe what is expected of people and help make social situations less ambiguous and more comfortable.
deindividuation
This psychological state occurs when a person—often a member of a group—loses his sense of individuality. This loss heightens feelings of cohesiveness with his group and increases emotional arousal. The focus of attention on membership in the group and the values of group serves to reduce a sense of personal responsibility by creating a feeling of anonymity, and also shifts attention away from internal thoughts to external environment.
empathy-altruism theory
This beliefs states that the likelihood of people engaging in unselfish helping acts (altruism) will do so even when the cost is high when they feel empathetic toward the person in need.
social loafing
This terms describes how people have a tendency to not work as hard when in a group, as it is difficult to identity an individual’s contributions. Individuals often exert more effort when performing alone.
conformity
This terms describes when a person changes their beliefs or behavior to match those around them. It is the result of group pressure.
compliance
This terms describes when people adjust their behavior after requested to do so. Explicit requests are spoken or directly indicated. Implicit requests are unspoken but understood.
frustrating-aggression hypothesis
Originally developed by John Dollard, this idea states that frustration always results in aggression, and that aggression will not occur unless someone is frustrated. This hypothesis, however, is said to be too simply and general.
prisoner’s dilemma game
This situation occurs when two criminals are separated after a crime. They have the choice of confessing or remaining silent. If neither confess, they will mostly likely be jailed for only 1 year for a minor offense. If both confess, they are likely to get a 5 year sentence. However, if one confesses and the other does not, the one that confessed will be released while the non-confessor will be jailed for up to 10 years. Responses can be cooperative or competitive. It is a mixed-motive conflict.
altruism
This term describes an unselfish concern for another’s welfare. It is a helping behavior.
arousal: cost-reward theory
This belief states that people find the sight of a victim anxiety-provoking and distressing. Their emotions motivate them to reduce their unpleasant arousal, namely the victim’s situation.
As physiological arousal of bystanders increases, so does the likelihood of them offering assistance.
group think
This phenomenon occurs when members of a group are not able to completely or realistically evaluate the potential negative consequences of a decision or the options open to them. Three conditions increase the likelihood of this to occur: isolation from outside influence, time pressure or extremely stress, biased leadership.
zero-sum games
This terms describes situations in which conflict is extremely likely. In these cases, the gains of one person is subtracted from another person’s resources; the sum of losses and gains is zero.
Showing posts with label notes. Show all posts
Showing posts with label notes. Show all posts
Thursday, May 8, 2008
Thursday, May 1, 2008
AP Psychology Ch16 vocab
CHAPTER 16 - Treatment and Therapy
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
AP Psychology Ch15 vocab, test notes
Psychological Disorders
Culture-general disorders - appear almost worldwide, but symptoms differ according to cultural backgrounds.
Culture-specific disorders – observed in only certain areas and are unique to certain cultures.
Diathesis-stress model - focuses on biological imbalances, inherited traits, brain damage, enduring psychological traits, and early learning experiences (biopsychosocial causes) that may create a predisposition for a psychological disorder; appearance of a disorder depends on stressors encountered by individual… when stress levels exceed coping capacity, panic response is triggered and psychological disorders may arise
Positive symptoms: unwanted additions to a person’s mental life... include distortions or exaggerated behavioral, perceptual, or cognitive functioning (i.e. delusions or hallucinations)
Negative symptoms: take away from elements of normal mental life; decrease or cause a loss of normal functioning... [ex: flat affect (restricted emotional expression), alogia (lack of speech)]
Personality disorder - long-standing, inflexible patterns of behavior, affects all areas of functioning
10 types: paranoid, schizoid (detached, restricted emotions), schizotypal (detached, odd perceptions/thoughts/ behaviors), dependent, obsessive-compulsive, avoidant, histrionic (overly dramatic, shallow, desire to be center of attention), narcissistic, borderline (unstable, impulsive, angry, suicidal), antisocial
General anxiety disorder – aka free-floating anxiety, involves non-specific, excessive, and long-lasting anxiety; individuals feel worried, jumpy, and irritable, believing disaster is imminent
Abnormal behavior
-not psychologically healthy, prevent effective everyday functioning
-socially unacceptable
-faulty reality perception
-self defeating, causes personal destress
Historical treatment of the insane
-prehistoric: supernatural, valued
-Greek/Roman: God’s way, embraced mental problems, bodies different?, kind treatment
-Middle Ages: Satan made people that way, torture
-Colonial Times: “witches” often OCD
Criterion for Abnormal/Normal Behavior
statistical: anything seen only in small % of popu
concensual: whatever society dictates is normal is normal (general population’s beliefs)
functioning: if a person can function, they are normal
personal: how you feel about your situation
Models of Psychological Disorders
Biomedical: something physically wrong, i.e. chemical imbalances, genetics, endocrine system problems
Psychoanalytic: repressed past problems, unconscious conflict
Cognitive: faulty constructs, your perspective causes problems
Behavioral: learned to be sick to get rewards/attention
Sociological: has to do w/ social class and social stress (poor working class = lowest #)
Categorizing disorders
psychological – in the mind
systemic – disease/disorder
traumatic – environment or life experience
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
DSM: 1962, 60 disorders
DSM II: 1968, original found not adequate, 2 categories created: neurotic (stress) & psychotic (imbalances)
DSM III: 1980, 150 disorders, based on what doctors saw in patients, neurotic/psychotic categories thrown out (not enough), homosexuality removed as disoder
DSM III-R: 1987, 250 disorders, 17 categories
DSM IV: 1994, close to 500 disorders, based on patient symptoms directly
axis
1. major clinical symptoms, basic disorders
2. personality/development disorders
3. physical problems
4. stress level in past year
5. independence
ESSAY
Create a case history for each of the disorders on the test. Make sure to describe the cause, type of onset, symptoms, behaviors, and treatments
Conversion Hysteria/Disorder: loss of physical functions w/o physical cause
onset – immediate
cause – traumatic
treatment – psychoanalysis
**type of somatoform disorder; occurs when an individual appears to be blind, deaf, paralyzed, or insensitive to pain when they are not; symptoms tend to appear with severe stress; individuals show surprisingly little concern over condition
Bipolar Disorder: manic & depressive states
onset – gradual
cause – genetic and biochemical (monoamide oxide)
treatment – neuroleptics (antipsychotics), lithium
*characterized by the appearance of 2 alternating emotional extremes: depression & mania
Mania describes an extremely elated, energetic, impulsive, reckless, agitated emotional state
Seasonal Affective Disorder: mood shifts with season, depression, weight gain
onset – gradual, episodic
cause – environmental
treatment – antidepressants, light therapy
Schizoprenia: hallucinations & delusions
1) paranoid – delusions of grandeur 2) catatonic – stupor/frozen to excited states
3) hebephrenic/disorganized – childish, word salads,
onset – can be gradual, reaction/immediate, or just happen upon adulthood
cause – organic brain disease, genetic, imbalance of dopamine
treatment – neuroleptics, pherothiazines
Paranoid Reaction: no hallucinations, delusional, lack insight
1) state: trauma and acute 2) true: always been a little off
onset – organized, gradual
cause – biochemical
treatment – neuroleptics, phenothiazines
OCD: thoughts that won’t go away & repetitive ritualistic behaviors that serve no purpose
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – antibodies for strep, chemical imbalance of serotonin
treatment – SSRI antidepressants, systematic desensitization, lobotomy (rare)
Panic Attacks: heart palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, difficulty breathing, episodic w/o cause or warning
onset – immediate, reactive?
cause – unequal blood flow to right side of brain, genetic?
treatment – drug therapy (Xanax), antidepressants, lobotomy
Post Traumatic Stress Disorders: flashbacks, nightmares
onset – reactive, immediate
cause – repression surrounding traumatic event
treatment – SSRI’s, psychoanalysis, EMDR
Phobias: unreasonable fears
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – trauma, associated with panic attacks
treatment – MAO inhibitors, systematic desensitization
Dissociative Disorders
1) amnesia: memory loss 2) fugue: memory loss plus flight, end up somewhere else 3) identity disorder: alters splitting from core personality 4) depersonalization: lose control of body
onset –gradual or acute
cause – repression, childhood abuse, trauma
treatment – psychoanalysis
Monday, March 10, 2008
AP Psychology Ch12 Test notes/essay
Development Unit Essay
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (8 stages) WITH FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (6 stages)
Both Freud and Erikson’s theories on development have stages that match up age and principal behaviors established. Freud, however, believed that in each stage we have a libidinal focus, while Erikson believed we go through stages based on our social interactions. Freud’s stages also stop after age 12, whereas Erikson’s continue throughout life and don’t end until we die.
Both Freud and Erikson’s first stages deal with trust as the principal behavior established. Freud focused on the mouth and believed that people in this stage get their arousal orally, generally through breastfeeding. Freud believed that in moments of stress or hardship, we may regress back to earlier stages. This can be seen when six year olds children get frightened and suck on their thumb, or when an teenager has a hard day and goes out for 3 Whoopers. Erikson’s first stage is trust vs. mistrust and deals with having our needs met (“I am what I am given”). If we our needs are met (i.e. hungry, get fed; cold, get blanket), we develop into trusting individuals. If we don’t have needs our met, we feel worthless and fail to develop trust and may be suspicious of people later in life, even if we have strong bonds with them. Erikson believed that people who were given too much early on—for example, they had parents that would give them food before they even felt hungry—will become gullible and overly trusting people.
Both Freud and Erikson’s second stages deal with competency as the principal behavior established. Freud believed that in this stage we get our arousal anally, especially people in this stage are generally being potty trained. The potty training results in either gained feelings or control or a feeling of lack of control. According to Freud, if someone were to have difficulty with this stage—or any other stage—they may become fixated or stuck. Anally fixated people fall under two catergories: those who are anal expulsive are very messy because they believe they have no control over their lives, and those who are anal retentive, who are extremely neat perfectionists who desperately seek control over everything in their lives. People can also anally regressed and become very neat in times of stress (i.e. when a student cleans his room before a big exam, instead of studying). Erikson’s second stage deals with autonomy vs doubt (“I am what I will”). We develop into independent people if our parents allowed us to fail. If a child’s parents were constantly doing everything for them then they always feel like they are not good enough or not competent enough, and will learn to doubt themselves.
Two of Freud’s stages actually match up with the principal behavior established in Erikson’s third stage. The first of Freud’s stages involves phallic self-stimulation (3rd stage) and learning about one’s body and what feels good. The seconds of Freud’s stages involves Oedipal/Electra complexes (4th stage), in which children focus on their opposite sex parent. Boys become attracted to their mothers and fear their fathers because they think their fathers will castrate them. Girls become attracted to their fathers and begin to think women are not as important as men because men have penises. Girls develop penis envy (which Freud claimed girls never get over) and think that the only thing they can have in place of a penis is a baby. Thus, the principal behavior established is the learning of gender roles. Erikson’s third stage involves initiative vs guilt (“I am what I imagine”). Children either take the initiative to dream big and reach for the stars, or feel guilty for trying things because their parents do not support them or show approval. Children learn to feel shame.
Both Freud and Erikson’s next stages focus on learning as the principal behavior established. For Freud, the fifth stage is a latent stage, which involves no libidinal focus because children believe sex is “yucky” due to the guilt they feel after working through their complexes in the previous stage. Thus, this stage simply involves focusing on school and education. According to Freud, this is when children develop morality and learn things such as shame and disgust. Erikson’s parallel is his fourth stage, industry vs inferiority. Industry involves learning and feeling smart. Inferiority is felt by those in low groups (i.e. the “slower” readers or the “easy” math group) who are held back. The key phrase is “I am what I can learn.”
Then, Erikson’s theory has a fifth stage, for which Freud does not truly have a parallel. Erikson’s stage involves identity vs role confusion. During this period, individuals try to discover who they are and work through issues involving time, sexual polarization, and self confidence, among other things.
Freud’s last stage corresponds with the principal behaviors established in Erikson’s sixth stage. Freud’s stage involves genetalia as the libidinal focus, only unlike the phallic and complex stages, this time individuals want others (not parents) to stimulate them. In this stage, people learn to establish relationships. Erikson’s parallel stage involves intimacy versus isolation. We develop relationships with others in this stage, and must consider whether we want to get married and commit ourselves to someone else.
While Freud didn’t believe that development extended beyond his genitalia stage, Erikson still had two more stages, the seventh stage being generativity vs self absorption, in which we learn to become involved in the community. People who are on the generativity side contribute to the world around them, whereas those who are self absorbed only live in the small space that they occupy and do not add to the community around them. The stage in Erikson’s theory is integrity vs despair, in which a person must deal with accepting their life and eventual death. People will integrity will look back and see all the wonderful things they did. They will see accomplishments and will believe their life was meaningful. People who despair reflect on their life only to see failure and missed opportunities. They reflect on what they should have done or could have done better.
AP Psychology Theories on Development
Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
Monday, March 3, 2008
AP Biology Plant Kingdom Notes
More Plant Kingdom Notes
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
- eukaryotic, autotrophic, photosynthetic
o chloroplasts
o chlorophyll a, b
o carotenoids
- multicellular (evolved from chlorophyta/green algae)
- non motile
- cell wall of cellulose (different from bacteria and fungi)
- food reserve stored as starch
Problems w/ Life on Land
- water loss
- gas exchange
- gravitational pull
Terrestrial Changes (distinguished plants from algae)
- structural adaptations
o complex bodies w/ cell specialization for diff functions
o stomata: balances gas exchange and dehydration
o cuticle: waxy secretion, cover surface, prevents dessication
- chemical adaptations
o lignin: rigidifies cellulose into wood, holds plant upright against gravity, maximizes leaf exposure to sun
- reproductive adaptations
o embryotic reproduction
o embryo retained and protected w/in parent à won’t dry out
o allows for gamete dispersion/fertilization without water
Charophyceans
- green algae
- closest relative of land plants
o 4 key shared characteristics w/ plants
§ rose-shaped (rosette) complex for cellulose synthesis
§ structure of flagellated sperm
§ formation of a phragmoplast
§ peroxisome enzymes
o nuclear and chloroplast gene shown close relations
§ sequenced DNA = very similar
§ in chloroplast, layer of durable polymer called sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
o 5 not shared traits (in plants, but not charophyceans)
§ apical meristems
§ walled spores produced in sporangia
§ multicellular dependent embryos
§ alternation of generations
§ multicellular gametangia
Vascular Plants
1. structural support
a. rigid structure needed to stand upright
b. cellulose and lignin fortify plant
2. regional specialization of plant body
a. water and light segregated in terrestrial habitat (water=roots & light=plant top)
b. root, aerial shoots, stem, leaves evolve
c. but this specialization leads to problem of transportation
3. vascular system
a. moves substances btwn roots/leaves
b. xylem
i. conducts water and minerals from root to leaves
ii. dead at functional maturity
c. phloem
i. transports food down plants
ii. distributes amino acids, sugars
iii. live at functional maturity
iv. arranged in tubules
4. pollen
a. contains male gametophytes (which will produce sex gametes)
b. eliminates need for water for sexual reproduction
5. seeds
a. diploid next generation sporophytes (product of archegonium, female organ)
6. increased dominance of diploid sporophyte
a. branching sporophytes of vascular plants amplifies production of spores
b. more complex bodies becomes possible
Seedless Vascular Plants
3 divisions
- lycophytes (lycophyta)
o club moss, ground pines
o mostly homosporous
- horsetails (sphenophyta)
o have photosynthetic, free-living gametophytes not dependent on sporophyte for food
Seed Vascular Plants
Reproductive adaptations
1. gametophytes of seed plants become more reduced in size (compared to the seedless vascular plants) and are retained within moist reproductive tissue of the sporophyte, unlike seedless plant gametophytes, which are independent
2. seeds replace spores as main means of dispersing offspring
harsh terrestrial environment required resistant structure for dispersal
bryophytes & seed(less?) vascular plants release hard spores
seed = more hardy due to multicellularity
seed contains sporophyte embryo, food supply, surrounding protective coat
all seed plants = heterosporous (have mega and micro sporangia)
seed develops into megasporangia
3. pollen became vehicle for sperm cells in seedplants
microspores due to pollen grains which mature to male gametophyte
coated w/ polymer sporopollenin
carried by wind/animals following release
GYMNOSPERMS = lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop à open seed
needle-shaped leaves = adapted to dry conditions
v thick cuticle
v stomata are in pits reducing water loss
v despite its different shape, it has megaphylls like all SP leaves
LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE
v sporophyte dominate
v sporangia located on cones
v multicellular sporophyte reduced, develops from haploid spores retained in sporangia
v male gametophyte consists of multicell nutritious tissue
v archegonium developes w/in ovule
v heterosporous
v takes nearly 3 yrs to complete life cycle
Angiosperms -> flowering plants
division – Anthophyta, 2 classes: monocotyledones & dicotyledones
a) mostly use insects and animals to increase efficiency of pollenation
b) terrestrial adaptation refined vascular tissue
c) conifers have Tracheids (sp?)
i. water conducting cells, early xylem
ii. elongated, tapered à function in both support and water movement
d) have vessel elements
i. shorter and wider
ii. arranged end to end forming continuous tubes
iii. more specialized for conducting water
e) reinforced by fibers
i. specialized for support
ii. thick lignified wall
iii. fibers evolved in conifers *some conifers have fibers & tracheids but not vessel elements
Flower -> defining reproduction adaptation
- compressed shoot w/ four whorls of _____ leaves
- parts of flower in 30.6 in Campbell
4 Evolutionary Trends
# of floral parts have become reduced
floral parts become fused
symmetry has changed from radial to bilateral
ovary drooped below petals and sepals à better protected
Life Cycle -> highly refined version of all
- heterosporous
- microsporangia in anthers produce microspores à form female gametophytes
- immature male gametophyte = pollen grains
- 2 haploid nuclei participate in double fertilization
Characteristics of Angiosperms
- female gametophyte
o don’t produce archegonium
o located in ovule
o consist of an embryo sac w/ 8 haploid nuclei in 7 cells
o large central ___ has 2 nuclei
o 1 cell is egg
Seed = Mature Ovule
1. embryo – develops from zygote w/ embryonic root and either 1 (monocot) or 2 (dicot) cotoyledons on seed leaves
2. endosperm – the triploid nucleus in embryo sac divides repeatedly forming ___ endosperm rich in starch à food reserves
3. seed coat
AP Biology Ch25, 26, 27 notes
Plants Notes
*taxonomy - in plant and fungi, phylums are called “divisions”
phylogeny = evolutionary history of species
SYSTEMATICS
- phylogeny and taxonomy
- classification reflects evolutionary affinities of species
- constantly changing
- fossil record serves are most evidence
fossils
- very rare -> record = spotty, incomplete
- only hard things like shells—nothing soft/fleshy... must be near water & sediment
- DATING
- relative = based on strata holding the fossils (oldest strata and fossils on the bottom)
- absolute = radiometric - unstable isotope with known half life can be tested for, i.e. Carbon-14
continental drift = as continents move, environments change... natural selection acts forces changes in species as they slowly adapt to their environment
massive extinctions create new adaptive zones by freeing up environmental niches and allowing for rapid adaptive radiation à major adaptations? insect wings (allows for new zones), shells (defense)
taxa should be monophyletic = SINGLE ancestor gives rise to all species in taxon
POLYPHYLETIC = members do not all share common ancestor
paraphyletic = taxon grouping consists of ancestor, but not all descendents (only some)
homology -> descent from common ancestor (shared phylogenetic history) can lead to morphological (i.e. bone structure) and molecular similarities (genes/DNA)
- shared primitive character = general, trait beyond the taxon being defined (i.e. horses and humans have hair, doesn’t mean their related because whales also have hair)
- shared derived character = unique, evolutionary novelty... distinct to clade, useful in establishing a phylogeny
analogy -> similarity due to convergent evolution (i.e. bat wing and bird wing function)
to construct phylogeny, differentiating between HOMOLOGY and ANALOGY is very important
homoplasies = analogous structures that evolved independently
branching sequences in phylogeny show time of evolution or divergence
cladogram = patterns of shared characteristics, doesn’t show evolutionary history or timing, merely chronological sequencing ->lade = group of species w/in tree, includes ancestors & descendents
ultrameric tree shows time
phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis
Outgroup comparison
- differentiates btwn derived or primitive characters
- important step in cladistic analysis
- ingroup = species studies which display mix of shared primitive and shared derived characters outgroup = the species closely related to the species being studied, but less so than any in the ingroup
Orthologous genes - widespread, found in diff gene pools due to speciation (i.e. ß hemoglobin genes found in both humans & mice)... all living things share certain biochem/developmental pathwaysParalogous genes - result from gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome (i.e. olfactory receptor genes)
*taxonomy - in plant and fungi, phylums are called “divisions”
phylogeny = evolutionary history of species
SYSTEMATICS
- phylogeny and taxonomy
- classification reflects evolutionary affinities of species
- constantly changing
- fossil record serves are most evidence
fossils
- very rare -> record = spotty, incomplete
- only hard things like shells—nothing soft/fleshy... must be near water & sediment
- DATING
- relative = based on strata holding the fossils (oldest strata and fossils on the bottom)
- absolute = radiometric - unstable isotope with known half life can be tested for, i.e. Carbon-14
continental drift = as continents move, environments change... natural selection acts forces changes in species as they slowly adapt to their environment
massive extinctions create new adaptive zones by freeing up environmental niches and allowing for rapid adaptive radiation à major adaptations? insect wings (allows for new zones), shells (defense)
taxa should be monophyletic = SINGLE ancestor gives rise to all species in taxon
POLYPHYLETIC = members do not all share common ancestor
paraphyletic = taxon grouping consists of ancestor, but not all descendents (only some)
homology -> descent from common ancestor (shared phylogenetic history) can lead to morphological (i.e. bone structure) and molecular similarities (genes/DNA)
- shared primitive character = general, trait beyond the taxon being defined (i.e. horses and humans have hair, doesn’t mean their related because whales also have hair)
- shared derived character = unique, evolutionary novelty... distinct to clade, useful in establishing a phylogeny
analogy -> similarity due to convergent evolution (i.e. bat wing and bird wing function)
to construct phylogeny, differentiating between HOMOLOGY and ANALOGY is very important
homoplasies = analogous structures that evolved independently
branching sequences in phylogeny show time of evolution or divergence
cladogram = patterns of shared characteristics, doesn’t show evolutionary history or timing, merely chronological sequencing ->lade = group of species w/in tree, includes ancestors & descendents
ultrameric tree shows time
phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis
Outgroup comparison
- differentiates btwn derived or primitive characters
- important step in cladistic analysis
- ingroup = species studies which display mix of shared primitive and shared derived characters outgroup = the species closely related to the species being studied, but less so than any in the ingroup
Orthologous genes - widespread, found in diff gene pools due to speciation (i.e. ß hemoglobin genes found in both humans & mice)... all living things share certain biochem/developmental pathwaysParalogous genes - result from gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome (i.e. olfactory receptor genes)
Monday, December 10, 2007
AP Psychology Ch6 vocab with brief notes
Chapter 6 Vocabulary
learning – when experience modifies pre-existing behavior/understanding; simplest form = learning about individual stimuli
two major kinds
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
Habituation = two interacting processes
A process: fixed, automatic, emotional, unlearned reponse
B process: slower reaction, triggered by onset of A and counteracts its effects (compensate and decrease)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = stimulus that elicit response without conditioning --> unconditioned response (UCR) = unlearned reaction
conditioned stimulus (CS) = new stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (CR) = response it comes to elicit
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus create a similar conditioned response, although to a lesser degree. The more similar the new stimulus to the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response.
Operant conditioning = same as instrumental conditioning, except with emphasis on organism learning response through operating on environment; behavior changed through consequences
operant – response that has effect on world, operates on environment (i.e. child tells parents he is hungry and thus influences appearance of food)
reinforcer – increases probability that operant behavior will occur again
positive = strengthen response when pleasant or positive stimulus occurs after behavior
negative = strengthen response through removal/termination of something unpleasant after behavior
learned helplessness – tendency to give up any effort to control the environment
latent learning – not evident when it first occurs
cognitive map – mental representation of particular spatial arrangement
1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
learning – when experience modifies pre-existing behavior/understanding; simplest form = learning about individual stimuli
two major kinds
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
Habituation = two interacting processes
A process: fixed, automatic, emotional, unlearned reponse
B process: slower reaction, triggered by onset of A and counteracts its effects (compensate and decrease)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = stimulus that elicit response without conditioning --> unconditioned response (UCR) = unlearned reaction
conditioned stimulus (CS) = new stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (CR) = response it comes to elicit
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus create a similar conditioned response, although to a lesser degree. The more similar the new stimulus to the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response.
Operant conditioning = same as instrumental conditioning, except with emphasis on organism learning response through operating on environment; behavior changed through consequences
operant – response that has effect on world, operates on environment (i.e. child tells parents he is hungry and thus influences appearance of food)
reinforcer – increases probability that operant behavior will occur again
positive = strengthen response when pleasant or positive stimulus occurs after behavior
negative = strengthen response through removal/termination of something unpleasant after behavior
learned helplessness – tendency to give up any effort to control the environment
latent learning – not evident when it first occurs
cognitive map – mental representation of particular spatial arrangement
1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
Wednesday, December 5, 2007
AP Biology Plant Notes (Ch 20-30 something)
Seed Vascular Plants
P = plant
A = animal
gp = gametophyte
SP = seed plant
Reproductive adaptations
1. gametophytes of seed plants become more reduced in size (compared to the seedless vascular plants) and are retained within moist reproductive tissue of the sporophyte, unlike seedless plant gametophytes, which are independent
2. seeds replace spores as main means of dispersing offspring
a. harsh terrestrial environment required resistant structure for dispersal
b. bryophytes and seed(less?) vascular plants release hard spores
c. seed = more hardy due to multicellularity
d. seed contains sporophyte embryo, food supply, surrounding protective coat
e. all seed plants = heterosporous (have mega and micro sporangia)
f. seed develops into megasporangia
3. pollen became vehicle for sperm cells in seedplants
a. microspores due to pollen grains which mature to male gametophyte
b. coated w/ polymer sporopollenin
c. carried by wind/animals following release
GYMNOSPERMS = lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop -> open seed
needle-shaped leaves = adapted to dry conditions
v thick cuticle
v stomata are in pits reducing water loss
v despite its different shape, it has megaphylls like all SP leaves
LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE
v sporophyte dominate
v sporangia located on cones
v multicellular sporophyte reduced, develops from haploid spores retained in sporangia
v male gametophyte consists of multicell nutritious tissue
v archegonium developes w/in ovule
v heterosporoustakes nearly 3 yrs to complete life cycle
AP Biology Ch28 Notes
PROTISTS
almost all = aerobic... use mitochondria for respiration
most have cilia and/or flagella (convergent evolution, not homologous to prokaryotes)
Candidate Kingdoms w/ Characteristics
- Diplomonadida – 2 equal sized nuclei
- Parabasala – undulating membrane
- Euglenozoa – spiral/crystalline rod in flagella
- Alveolata – alveoli under plasma membrane
- Stramenopila – hairy and smooth flagella
- Cercozoa & Radiolaria – amoebas w/ threadlike pseudopodia
- Amoebozoa – amoebas w/ lobe-shaped pseudopodia
- Rhodophyta – red algae, phycoerythrin (pigment), not flagellated
- Chlorophyta – group of green algae, plant-type chlorophyll
Endosymbiosis – Genesis – 1st Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
- natural selection driving prokaryotic evolution towards greater complexity
- primary
- structures/processes
- certain prokaryotic species (endosymbionts lives) w/in larger prokaryotes...
- evidence based upon mitochondria & chloroplasts’ similarity to prokaryotes in...
MALARIA LIFE CYCLE
parasite plasmodium continually changes surface proteins à protects it from immune system
- inside of mosquito = sexual reproduction
Variable Life Cycles
- mitotic divisions
- asexual reproduction
- sexual reproduction -> syngamy: fusion 2 cells, trade genes (btwn episodes of asexual reproduction)
- conjugation
Ecological Categories
- photosynthetic = plant-like (algae)
- ingestive = animal-like (protozoans)
- absorptive = fungi-like
Nutritional Categories
- photoautotrophic have chloroplasts
- heterotrophic absorb/ingest food
- mixotrophic do both
Euglena
- bridge evolutionary gap btwn animals & plants à characteristics from both groups
- may carry on photosynthesis
- have flagella & contractile vacuoles
- lack cell wall
- unicellular
- disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae?
- obtain energy how?
RED Algae
- adapted to deep water – photosynthetic pigments efficient at absorbing blue/green light
- characterized by alternation of generations
- agar, algin, carrageenan
- alveoli under plasma membrane
GREEN Algae - most closely related to plants
Dinoflagellates
- “blooms” = population explosion à red tide caused by carotenoids
- produce nerve agent toxic to ppl
Diatoms = special cell wall structure can support elephant’s weight
phototactic = able to sense light and swim towards it, prefer photosynthesis
phytoplankton = basis of food chain
cyst formation is like that of endospore in bacteria... allows for survival in extremes
protozoans generally heterotrophic, animal-like, ingestiveoomycetes once categorized as fungi
almost all = aerobic... use mitochondria for respiration
most have cilia and/or flagella (convergent evolution, not homologous to prokaryotes)
Candidate Kingdoms w/ Characteristics
- Diplomonadida – 2 equal sized nuclei
- Parabasala – undulating membrane
- Euglenozoa – spiral/crystalline rod in flagella
- Alveolata – alveoli under plasma membrane
- Stramenopila – hairy and smooth flagella
- Cercozoa & Radiolaria – amoebas w/ threadlike pseudopodia
- Amoebozoa – amoebas w/ lobe-shaped pseudopodia
- Rhodophyta – red algae, phycoerythrin (pigment), not flagellated
- Chlorophyta – group of green algae, plant-type chlorophyll
Endosymbiosis – Genesis – 1st Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
- natural selection driving prokaryotic evolution towards greater complexity
o multicellular forms (cyanobacteria)- SEQUENTIAL
o complex prokaryotic communities
o compartmentalization of different functions w/in single cell
o specialization of membrane invaginations (mesosomes) -> golgi, ER?
- primary
o photosynthetic cyanobacteria -> plastids -> red & green algae- secondary - heterotrophic eukaryote engulfed in food vacuole à endosymbiont à organelle
o close resemblance btwn cyanobacteria & algae
- structures/processes
o cytoskeleton- SERIAL
o membrane bound nucleus
o mitochondria
o chloroplasts
o life cycles -> (a)sexual reproduction, meiosis (4 haploid gametes), mitosis (2 cell division)
o endomembrane system
o 9 + 2 flagella
o multiple linear chromosomes w/ proteins
- certain prokaryotic species (endosymbionts lives) w/in larger prokaryotes...
- evidence based upon mitochondria & chloroplasts’ similarity to prokaryotes in...
o size
o inner membrane w/ enzymes
o replication through binary fission
o circular DNA w/ lack of histones
o own RNA and ribosomes
alternation of generations
MALARIA LIFE CYCLE
parasite plasmodium continually changes surface proteins à protects it from immune system
- inside of mosquito = sexual reproduction
o pick up gametocytes from ppl -> becomes gametes- goes to human = asexual reproduction (haploid)
o fertilization (diploid ONLY here), meiosis -> sporozoites
o mostly found in liver & blood cells
o fill cells with waste, causing them to explode
Variable Life Cycles
- mitotic divisions
- asexual reproduction
- sexual reproduction -> syngamy: fusion 2 cells, trade genes (btwn episodes of asexual reproduction)
- conjugation
o two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei, sexual shuffling of genes occurs
o dynamics + advantages of sex w/o male or female genders
o eliminates transposons
o increases genetic variation -> natural selection à greater reproductive success
Ecological Categories
- photosynthetic = plant-like (algae)
- ingestive = animal-like (protozoans)
- absorptive = fungi-like
Nutritional Categories
- photoautotrophic have chloroplasts
- heterotrophic absorb/ingest food
- mixotrophic do both
Euglena
- bridge evolutionary gap btwn animals & plants à characteristics from both groups
- may carry on photosynthesis
- have flagella & contractile vacuoles
- lack cell wall
- unicellular
- disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae?
- obtain energy how?
RED Algae
- adapted to deep water – photosynthetic pigments efficient at absorbing blue/green light
- characterized by alternation of generations
- agar, algin, carrageenan
- alveoli under plasma membrane
GREEN Algae - most closely related to plants
Dinoflagellates
- “blooms” = population explosion à red tide caused by carotenoids
- produce nerve agent toxic to ppl
Diatoms = special cell wall structure can support elephant’s weight
phototactic = able to sense light and swim towards it, prefer photosynthesis
phytoplankton = basis of food chain
cyst formation is like that of endospore in bacteria... allows for survival in extremes
protozoans generally heterotrophic, animal-like, ingestiveoomycetes once categorized as fungi
AP Biology Ch19 Notes
Organization and Control
Structure of chromatin... eukaryotic DNA is
· complexed (combined) w/ large amount of protein to form chromatin
· highly extended & tangled during interphase
· condensed into short chromosomes during mitosis
· has an elaborate system of DNA packing to fit all of a cell’s DNA into nucleus
Chromatin undergoes striking changes in the course of cell cycle...
· Interphase à chromatin fibers usually highly extended within nucleus
· Preparation for meiosis à chromatin condenses, forming a characteristic number of short, thick chromosomes that can be distinguished w/ light microscopeeukaryotic chromosomes contain an enormous amount of DNA relative to their condensed length (human chromosome averages about 1.5 × 108 nucleotide pairs... when extended, a DNA molec would be about 4 cm long)
Genome Organization at DNA level
· an organism’s genome is plastic (changeable) in ways that affect that availibility of specific genes for expression
· genes may be avilable for expression of some cells and not others, & at some time in development
· genes can be amplified or made more available
· changes in physical arrangement of DNA (i.e. packing) affect gene expression
· movement of DNA within genome & chemical modification of DNA influence expression
Repetitive DNA & Noncoding Sequences
· account for much of eukaryotic genome
· most DNA doesn’t code for protein or RNA
· coding sequences may be interrupted by introns
· certain sequences may be in multiple copies
Gene Expression in Eukaryotes depends on...
· physical availability of genes due to DNA packing (consisting of nucleosomes, 30nm chromatin fibers, looped domains)
· structural or chemical changes
o methylation—addition of CH3 group
o amplification—many copies of gene
o rearrangements/transposons
· transcriptional control... through transcription factors, enhancers, promoters, hormones, chemical signals
· post-transcriptional control & RNA processing (5’ cap, poly A tail, intron removal, exon ligation)
· translational control (i.e. inititation factors, repressors)
· post-translational control (i.e. cleavage--cutting polypeptides, chemical additions, degradation)
Gene Expression... when abnormalities lead to cancer
· activation of oncogene (cancer causing)
· amplification of poto-oncogene
· mutation of tumor supressor genes (inactivation)
Binding to help RNA polymerase transcribe certain genes
protein -> specific protein -> specific site on cell’s DNA
Advantage of short lived proteins: more precise & efficient control of activities
AP Psychology Ch9 test notes and vocab
consciousness – awareness of mental processes and outside world, info intake from self/environment
nonconscious – automatic body functions (heart, blood sugar level)
subconscious –
preconscious – not conscious, outside of awareness, may become conscious (readily brought to conscious level or into awareness)
unconscious - may alter/effect thoughts, feelings, and actions; difficult to bring into awareness, may be actively kept out of consciousness (Freud)
dualism – consciousness separate from mind
materialism – consciousness and mind are same thing
REM sleep
BRAIN WAVES
Alpha – relaxed state
Beta – alert state
Delta – deep sleep
VOCAB
Narcolepsy - daytime sleep disorder, generally starts when an individual is 15-25y/o, causes individual to switch from active waking states to REM sleep
Night terrors - most common in boys, occur during stage 3/4 sleep, horrible dream images, may produce screams/fear, often unrecalled
Sleep apnea - breathing stop during the night, must wake to resume normal breathing, moments of awakening not remembered in the morning, but may cause tiredness, and loss of attention/learning ability.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome - when a sleeping baby stops breathing and dies, generally occurs 2 to 4 months after birth
Circadian rhythms - cycles of behavior & physiology that repeat approximately ever 24 hours (25 hours for humans), example of the rhythmic nature of life, may be influenced by signals such as light and dark hours.
lucid dreaming – when an individual is aware that they are dreaming during their dream
role theory of hypnosis - hypnosis is not altered state of consciousness; participants are simply meeting social demands by playing a certain role
state theory of hypnosis - based on idea that hypnosis creates altered state of consciousness and can produce dramatic effects, such as removing warts
dissociation theory - proposed by Hilgard, blends the role and state theories, proposes that hypnosis is not a specific state, but a condition in which normal though and action control is temporarily reorganized or broken up
psychoactive drugs - affect the brain, may change consciousness or other psychological processes
blood-brain barrier - a feature of blood vessels in the brain which prevent certain substances from entering tissue
agnoists - fit into and affect receptors the same way a neurotransmitter would, mimic the effects a normal neurotransmitter would create
antagonists - similar enough to neurotransmitters to take their place in receptor sites, but unable to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
psychological dependence - when person continues drug use despite undesirable effects and develops such a need for the drug that they become preoccupied with obtaining it in order to maintain sense of well-being
nonconscious – automatic body functions (heart, blood sugar level)
subconscious –
preconscious – not conscious, outside of awareness, may become conscious (readily brought to conscious level or into awareness)
unconscious - may alter/effect thoughts, feelings, and actions; difficult to bring into awareness, may be actively kept out of consciousness (Freud)
dualism – consciousness separate from mind
materialism – consciousness and mind are same thing
REM sleep
30-45min into stage 4, when most dreams occurQuiet sleep – slow brain waves, deep breathing, calm heart beat, low bp, alpha waves (relaxed state)
delta waves desynchronize, theta waves reappear
brain activity increases & bp, breathing, and heart rate resemble those of an alert/aroused person
muscle tone falls, spasms may occur
most prevalent during infancy
BRAIN WAVES
Alpha – relaxed state
Beta – alert state
Delta – deep sleep
VOCAB
Narcolepsy - daytime sleep disorder, generally starts when an individual is 15-25y/o, causes individual to switch from active waking states to REM sleep
Night terrors - most common in boys, occur during stage 3/4 sleep, horrible dream images, may produce screams/fear, often unrecalled
Sleep apnea - breathing stop during the night, must wake to resume normal breathing, moments of awakening not remembered in the morning, but may cause tiredness, and loss of attention/learning ability.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome - when a sleeping baby stops breathing and dies, generally occurs 2 to 4 months after birth
Circadian rhythms - cycles of behavior & physiology that repeat approximately ever 24 hours (25 hours for humans), example of the rhythmic nature of life, may be influenced by signals such as light and dark hours.
lucid dreaming – when an individual is aware that they are dreaming during their dream
role theory of hypnosis - hypnosis is not altered state of consciousness; participants are simply meeting social demands by playing a certain role
state theory of hypnosis - based on idea that hypnosis creates altered state of consciousness and can produce dramatic effects, such as removing warts
dissociation theory - proposed by Hilgard, blends the role and state theories, proposes that hypnosis is not a specific state, but a condition in which normal though and action control is temporarily reorganized or broken up
psychoactive drugs - affect the brain, may change consciousness or other psychological processes
blood-brain barrier - a feature of blood vessels in the brain which prevent certain substances from entering tissue
agnoists - fit into and affect receptors the same way a neurotransmitter would, mimic the effects a normal neurotransmitter would create
antagonists - similar enough to neurotransmitters to take their place in receptor sites, but unable to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
psychological dependence - when person continues drug use despite undesirable effects and develops such a need for the drug that they become preoccupied with obtaining it in order to maintain sense of well-being
AP Psychology Ch5 test notes
Notes on Vision and Perception
Sensation – activity of sense organ when detecting stimulus
Intensity – physical strength of stimulus (required in order for sensation to occur)
Noise – background stimulation for any sense that takes away from the sensation of the “main” stimulus
Adaptation – with prolonged exposure, body can tune out a sense and adapt or get used to it
Signal detection theory – other psychological factors influence our experience of stimuli and perception of the world… there is more than just the physical factors affecting sensation (i.e. logic—how we think about the stimulus)
Absolute threshold – least amount of energy required for stimulus to be detected by sense at least 50% of the time
Weber’s Law – consistent numbers for JNDs à 2% weight, 20% slatiness, 10% loudness, 14% pressure, 5% smell, .3% pitch
Fechner’s Law – how much more does the intensity of a stimuli have to increase for the sensation to be twice as strong? …the stronger the sensation from the start, the harder it is or the more required for it to be twice as much
Visible light in spectrum = about 350-380nm to 760nm
Primary colors of light = red, blue, green
Light = additive, all colors together make white
Saturation – richness of color
Brightness – hue from light to dark
Negative afterimages – what is left after the firing of ganglia
Binocular vision – ability to focus on something with both eyes, increases depth
dark-adaptation – within 30 minutes
light-adaptation – within a matter of minutes
blind-spot –where the optic nerve enters the eyes, no rods/cones, no photoreceptors
monocular cue accommodation – ability of eye to focus on an object, lens tights & loosens, accommodates & converges
shape consistency – even though image on retina may change shape, image stays the same in your head
size consistency – closer objects fill more of retina, even though image on retina may change size, image remains the same in your head
color consistency – color stays consistent in head, even though the light hitting it is always changing
tempera summation – summarize everything that’s going on in your eye
active coding theory – we are constantly coding colors in our eyes; it is an active process for us to perceive color
opponent coding theory – we either see one color or its opposite
depth – ability to have images in 3-D; images hit our retina as 2-D and are processed in our frontal lobes as 3-D
interposition/occlusion – occurs when you have 1 object covering another (blocked) object, and the mind
Young-Helmhotlz / Trichromatic Theory (1800s) – color perception from retina; cones for red, green, blue; everything = combinations of three main colors; most receptors dedicated to red
Hering Hurvich / Opponent-process Theory – every color perceived in ganglia, color or opposite (i.e. blue vs yellow), after image theory
Retinex Theory – everything we see is compared to everything we’ve seen before
Human eye = inefficient, inside-out and backwards… in TV would be like having screen, wires, image
Near-sighted people have problem of image hitting too soon on retina
Color blindness – men more likely than woman, traited carried on X-chromosome; 4 out of 1000 women, 8 out of 100 men
Protanopia – red, green, yellow all look yellow
Deuteranopia – red, green, yellow all look red
Tritanopia – shorter wavelengths difficult to see, can’t see dark colors
PARTS OF EYE
Sensation – activity of sense organ when detecting stimulus
Intensity – physical strength of stimulus (required in order for sensation to occur)
Noise – background stimulation for any sense that takes away from the sensation of the “main” stimulus
Adaptation – with prolonged exposure, body can tune out a sense and adapt or get used to it
Signal detection theory – other psychological factors influence our experience of stimuli and perception of the world… there is more than just the physical factors affecting sensation (i.e. logic—how we think about the stimulus)
Absolute threshold – least amount of energy required for stimulus to be detected by sense at least 50% of the time
Weber’s Law – consistent numbers for JNDs à 2% weight, 20% slatiness, 10% loudness, 14% pressure, 5% smell, .3% pitch
Fechner’s Law – how much more does the intensity of a stimuli have to increase for the sensation to be twice as strong? …the stronger the sensation from the start, the harder it is or the more required for it to be twice as much
Visible light in spectrum = about 350-380nm to 760nm
Primary colors of light = red, blue, green
Light = additive, all colors together make white
Saturation – richness of color
Brightness – hue from light to dark
Negative afterimages – what is left after the firing of ganglia
Binocular vision – ability to focus on something with both eyes, increases depth
dark-adaptation – within 30 minutes
light-adaptation – within a matter of minutes
blind-spot –where the optic nerve enters the eyes, no rods/cones, no photoreceptors
monocular cue accommodation – ability of eye to focus on an object, lens tights & loosens, accommodates & converges
shape consistency – even though image on retina may change shape, image stays the same in your head
size consistency – closer objects fill more of retina, even though image on retina may change size, image remains the same in your head
color consistency – color stays consistent in head, even though the light hitting it is always changing
tempera summation – summarize everything that’s going on in your eye
active coding theory – we are constantly coding colors in our eyes; it is an active process for us to perceive color
opponent coding theory – we either see one color or its opposite
depth – ability to have images in 3-D; images hit our retina as 2-D and are processed in our frontal lobes as 3-D
interposition/occlusion – occurs when you have 1 object covering another (blocked) object, and the mind
Young-Helmhotlz / Trichromatic Theory (1800s) – color perception from retina; cones for red, green, blue; everything = combinations of three main colors; most receptors dedicated to red
Hering Hurvich / Opponent-process Theory – every color perceived in ganglia, color or opposite (i.e. blue vs yellow), after image theory
Retinex Theory – everything we see is compared to everything we’ve seen before
Human eye = inefficient, inside-out and backwards… in TV would be like having screen, wires, image
Near-sighted people have problem of image hitting too soon on retina
Color blindness – men more likely than woman, traited carried on X-chromosome; 4 out of 1000 women, 8 out of 100 men
Protanopia – red, green, yellow all look yellow
Deuteranopia – red, green, yellow all look red
Tritanopia – shorter wavelengths difficult to see, can’t see dark colors
PARTS OF EYE
Cornea – outer protective layer, 1st part light passes through, altered with
laser surgery
Aqueous humor – liquid between cornea and iris/pupil/lens
Iris – color part
Pupil – light regulator
Lens – focusing part of eyes (can be linked to problems with sight), beneath cornea,
can be tightened/loosened (accommodation) or moved in/out (converging)
Ciliary muscle – controls lens size
Vitreous humor – liquid inside eye cavity
Fovea – back center of retina, only has cones, last part of eye to finish developing
Retina – where light hits after traveling through lens, receives inverted image, filled by 126 million light-sensitive photoreceptors (in both eyes)
Rods – sensitive to black/white, 60 million per eye, many in nocturnal creatures, release chemical called rhodopsin when hit by light
Cones – sensitive to color, 3 million per eyes, more sensitive so less stimulation needed, released chemical opsin when hit by light
Sclera – clear-colored but opaque inner covering, protective, where dirt/grime collects and washed to eye ducts
Blind spot – where option nerve connect with eye, no photoreceptors
Tuesday, December 4, 2007
Economics Notes
Economics Test
1. Free trade arguments: helps global economy, foreign competition keeps prices down & encourages better quality products, lowers trade barriers, encourages better & more open relationships, protectionism can prompt retaliation (reducing exports and hurting businesses)
2. Protectionism arguments: nations w/ free trade are too specialized & codependent, new industries require protection from foreign business/competition, domestic businesses hurt by competition of cheap foreign labor, limited imports keep money in country, tool of influence/retaliation
3. Free trade: trade between countries w/ no barriers
4. Protectionism: use of trade barriers to protect industries from foreign competition (i.e. tariffs, quotas, embargos, and subsidies)
5. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): eliminated trade restrictions between Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., helped economies, increased trade, stimulated healthy competition, created less expensive goods and job growth
6. Externalities: side effects of economic decisions
7. Regulatory policies & agencies: protect public, makes rules about health & safety and requirements for products on market
8. Federal Reserve System: nation’s central bank made of 12 regional banks
9. Monetary policy: Federal Reserve System’s way of adjusting money supply, deals with discount rates, bank reserve requirements, and bonds to influence GDP and inflation
10. Expansionary policy: when economy is slow, government’s fiscal policy for less unemployment involves more spending and/or lower taxes
11. Contractionary policy: when economy is too fast, government’s fiscal policy to decrease inflation and slow demand is decreased spending and/or higher taxes
12. Reserve requirements: amount of money banks must have on hand at all times, set by Fed, change by monetary policy
13. Direct regulation: government policies that set rule/standard for individuals and businesses to follow, and provide punishment for not following the standard
14. Market incentives: government policies that help individuals/businesses (economically), or force them to assume total cost of actions
15. Inflation: increase in money supply when resources remain constant causing prices to rise and value of currency to fall
16. Recession: decrease in money supply when supplies are constant
17. Entitlements: what government is expected to provide for poor, old, disabled, etc. (i.e. Medicare)
18. Fiscal policy: Congress and President controlling economic activity through taxes and spending (contractionary vs. expansionary policies)
19. Tariff: tax on imported products, raising prices, giving domestic producer competitive advantage
20. Quota: limit # of given product which can be imported for given period, helps domestic industries
21. Embargo: total ban on imports/exports, can be used as punishment/protest against other nations
22. Trade deficit: when countries import more than they export (negative balance of trade)
23. Comparative advantage: certain areas of the ability/resources to more easily provide goods/services than elsewhere à production has lower opportunity cost
24. Why nations trade: satisfies people’s wants/needs easily and cheaply, helps world economy, different nations specialize in different things, codependence, exports bring in money, imports might be cheaper (foreign labor costs less)
25. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): dollar value of all goods/services produced
26. Consumer Price Index (CPI): determines inflation rate and % change in prices over time, indicator of cost of living, measures price of standard goods of typical consumer
27. Export: goods sent to another country for sale
28. Import: goods brought in from another nation for sale
1. Free trade arguments: helps global economy, foreign competition keeps prices down & encourages better quality products, lowers trade barriers, encourages better & more open relationships, protectionism can prompt retaliation (reducing exports and hurting businesses)
2. Protectionism arguments: nations w/ free trade are too specialized & codependent, new industries require protection from foreign business/competition, domestic businesses hurt by competition of cheap foreign labor, limited imports keep money in country, tool of influence/retaliation
3. Free trade: trade between countries w/ no barriers
4. Protectionism: use of trade barriers to protect industries from foreign competition (i.e. tariffs, quotas, embargos, and subsidies)
5. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): eliminated trade restrictions between Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., helped economies, increased trade, stimulated healthy competition, created less expensive goods and job growth
6. Externalities: side effects of economic decisions
7. Regulatory policies & agencies: protect public, makes rules about health & safety and requirements for products on market
8. Federal Reserve System: nation’s central bank made of 12 regional banks
9. Monetary policy: Federal Reserve System’s way of adjusting money supply, deals with discount rates, bank reserve requirements, and bonds to influence GDP and inflation
10. Expansionary policy: when economy is slow, government’s fiscal policy for less unemployment involves more spending and/or lower taxes
11. Contractionary policy: when economy is too fast, government’s fiscal policy to decrease inflation and slow demand is decreased spending and/or higher taxes
12. Reserve requirements: amount of money banks must have on hand at all times, set by Fed, change by monetary policy
13. Direct regulation: government policies that set rule/standard for individuals and businesses to follow, and provide punishment for not following the standard
14. Market incentives: government policies that help individuals/businesses (economically), or force them to assume total cost of actions
15. Inflation: increase in money supply when resources remain constant causing prices to rise and value of currency to fall
16. Recession: decrease in money supply when supplies are constant
17. Entitlements: what government is expected to provide for poor, old, disabled, etc. (i.e. Medicare)
18. Fiscal policy: Congress and President controlling economic activity through taxes and spending (contractionary vs. expansionary policies)
19. Tariff: tax on imported products, raising prices, giving domestic producer competitive advantage
20. Quota: limit # of given product which can be imported for given period, helps domestic industries
21. Embargo: total ban on imports/exports, can be used as punishment/protest against other nations
22. Trade deficit: when countries import more than they export (negative balance of trade)
23. Comparative advantage: certain areas of the ability/resources to more easily provide goods/services than elsewhere à production has lower opportunity cost
24. Why nations trade: satisfies people’s wants/needs easily and cheaply, helps world economy, different nations specialize in different things, codependence, exports bring in money, imports might be cheaper (foreign labor costs less)
25. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): dollar value of all goods/services produced
26. Consumer Price Index (CPI): determines inflation rate and % change in prices over time, indicator of cost of living, measures price of standard goods of typical consumer
27. Export: goods sent to another country for sale
28. Import: goods brought in from another nation for sale
Biology Bioethics Project Research
Xenotransplanting is when organs, tissues, or cells of one species are transferred into another species. Currently scientists are working on nonhuman animal organs that might possibly be used to replace human organs that are diseased or damaged. So far, there have been no successes.
Scientists have experimented with organs from chimps and baboons, but find that pigs are the best choice because their organs are about the same size as human organs (belonging to adults). In addition, pigs lessen the question of ethics, because they are also killed for the purposes of consumption.
The problem with transplanting organs is that they are often rejected. The organ that was transplanted becomes swollen and black, dying within minutes. Attempting to prevent organ rejection, scientists have experimented with transgenic pigs, or pigs that were created with pig embryos and injected human genes. However, the biggest concern with xenotransplanting is that animals viruses might spread to people.
(all information from page 544 from World Book)
Genetically modified food was produced when scientists attempted to create healthier and better tasting food. Among others are the idea of tomatoes that can fight cancer and beans that wouldn’t result in gas. However, currently the most well known genetically modified foods have only gone as far as helping farmers on the issues of weed control and pesticides. The two processes used to create genetically modified food are selective breeding and genetic engineering (which enables scientists to insert certain genes into plants and animals, allowing easy species crossing).
World History, Renaissance People Project
Desiderius Erasmus
v Dutch (from the Netherlands)
v Christian humanist
v view of religion referred to as “philosophy of Christ”
v felt that religion should teach people how to live good lives on a daily basis, not give a system of beliefs
v criticized the Church’s abuses in The Praise of Folly (1509)
v believed external forms of religion were unneccessary, including pilgrimages, fasting, and relics
v set the foundation for the Reformation (refer to Martin Luther)
Baldassare Castiglione
v Italian writer
v wrote The Book of the Courtier (1528)
§ contained expectations of nobles/aristocrats
§ expressed ideal characteristics/behavior of perfect nobility
· born, not made
· must have grave and talent
· military/physical exercise
· classical education
· standard of conduct: show achievements with grace
§ followed for hundred of years
v greatly influenced social/political life and conduct
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
v German artist
v painted “Adoration of Maggi”
v greatly influenced by Italian artists – learned laws of perspective from them
v affected northern artistic Renaissance
§ used minute details, which were harmoniously worked into his art
§ tried to achieve standard of ideal beauty
§ carefully examined human form
Francesco Petrarch
v Florentine scholar and humanist
v called the father of Italian Renaissance humanism
v fostered development of humanism in the 14th century
v looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts à started search for similar works in monastic libraries throughout Europe
v began the emphasis on using pure classical Latin
Giotto
v Florentine painter and architect
v did many religious works
v one of the first artists in the Renaissance to give expressiveness to religious figures (made them more human)
v depicted realistic humans and animals
v showed human emotion in paintings
v understood pictorial space— how to make background and foreground
v direct approach to human experience/existence
Leonardo da Vinci
v Italian painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, mathematician, and engineer
v mastered art of realistic painting
v dissected human bodies
v goal was to create idealized forms
v able to show human emotion in his works
v wanted to show perfection of nature and individual in his art
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period
Raphael Santi
v Italy’s best painter – created the numerous madonna works
v made frescoes in Vatican Palace (ex: School of Athens)
v showed unity between Christianity and humanism in his art
v paintings reveal balance, harmony, order
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period
Niccolo Machiavelli
v Italian
v wrote The Prince
§ about politics in the West – how to obtain and keep power
§ rejected the idea that rulers should follow Christian principles
§ people with power can “act on behalf of the state” (without moral obligations)
v strong influence on following political leaders
v first person to stop using ethics/morals when scrutinizing political activity
Thomas More
v English
v Christian humanist & devout Catholic
v opposed King Henry VIII’s break from pope & his Act of Supremacy (1534)
v beheaded for disagreeing with king
Giovanni Boccaccio
v Italian author/poet
v wrote in vernacular language
v works contained realistic, lively individuals
v did not follow medieval character set ups, which were based upon piety, charity, and humility
v wrote Decameron
§ greatly influenced European literature
§ was borrowed from by Chaucer and Shakespeare (2 great English writers)
§ subject of many poems
Francois Rabelais
v French Renaissance author, philosopher & humanist
v studied Greek, Latin, science, philology, law
v practiced medicine
v revolutionary satirical works on sociopolitical events
v ridiculed certain Roman Catholic practices
v invented new words & metaphors
v supported etymological spelling
v influential writer
Isabella d’Este
v Italian marquise
v commissioned sculptures in Roman style
v made Mantua one of the most cultured courts in Europe
v drawn by Titan and Leonardo da Vinci
v important role in Italian politics: advanced Mantua’s position
Miguel de Cervantes
v Spanish novelist, playwright, & poet
v wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha
§ considered 1st modern novel & great work of Western literature
§ written in vernacular language
v influenced writing – mastered dialogue and included much of it in his famous works
v also a soldier - fought in several battles, including the capture of Tunis
William Shakespeare
v English dramatist, playwright, actor, shareholder in theatre company (Lord Chamberlain’s Men)
v known for English literature during Elizabethan Era
v referred to as universal genius and master of language
v keen insight into human psychology
v wrote many comedies and dramas, which are still read today
Johannes Gutenberg
v German
v wrote Gutenberg’s Bible (1455) – 1st European book produced on a movable printing press
v played role in learning how to print with movable metal printing press
v helped with spread of knowledge
Hans Holbein the Younger
v German artist of Northern Renassiance
v illustrated Desiderius Erasmus’s satires
v helped with Martin Luther’s Bible translation
v painted many works for King Henry VIII and his court
v made portraits with ink and chalk of his subjects before painting
Hans Holbein the Older
v German painter
v created religious art in late Gothic style
v began the change of German art from Gothic to Renaissance style
v famous for illustrations in The Praise of Folly (see Desiderius Erasmus)
v Dutch (from the Netherlands)
v Christian humanist
v view of religion referred to as “philosophy of Christ”
v felt that religion should teach people how to live good lives on a daily basis, not give a system of beliefs
v criticized the Church’s abuses in The Praise of Folly (1509)
v believed external forms of religion were unneccessary, including pilgrimages, fasting, and relics
v set the foundation for the Reformation (refer to Martin Luther)
Baldassare Castiglione
v Italian writer
v wrote The Book of the Courtier (1528)
§ contained expectations of nobles/aristocrats
§ expressed ideal characteristics/behavior of perfect nobility
· born, not made
· must have grave and talent
· military/physical exercise
· classical education
· standard of conduct: show achievements with grace
§ followed for hundred of years
v greatly influenced social/political life and conduct
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
v German artist
v painted “Adoration of Maggi”
v greatly influenced by Italian artists – learned laws of perspective from them
v affected northern artistic Renaissance
§ used minute details, which were harmoniously worked into his art
§ tried to achieve standard of ideal beauty
§ carefully examined human form
Francesco Petrarch
v Florentine scholar and humanist
v called the father of Italian Renaissance humanism
v fostered development of humanism in the 14th century
v looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts à started search for similar works in monastic libraries throughout Europe
v began the emphasis on using pure classical Latin
Giotto
v Florentine painter and architect
v did many religious works
v one of the first artists in the Renaissance to give expressiveness to religious figures (made them more human)
v depicted realistic humans and animals
v showed human emotion in paintings
v understood pictorial space— how to make background and foreground
v direct approach to human experience/existence
Leonardo da Vinci
v Italian painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, mathematician, and engineer
v mastered art of realistic painting
v dissected human bodies
v goal was to create idealized forms
v able to show human emotion in his works
v wanted to show perfection of nature and individual in his art
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period
Raphael Santi
v Italy’s best painter – created the numerous madonna works
v made frescoes in Vatican Palace (ex: School of Athens)
v showed unity between Christianity and humanism in his art
v paintings reveal balance, harmony, order
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period
Niccolo Machiavelli
v Italian
v wrote The Prince
§ about politics in the West – how to obtain and keep power
§ rejected the idea that rulers should follow Christian principles
§ people with power can “act on behalf of the state” (without moral obligations)
v strong influence on following political leaders
v first person to stop using ethics/morals when scrutinizing political activity
Thomas More
v English
v Christian humanist & devout Catholic
v opposed King Henry VIII’s break from pope & his Act of Supremacy (1534)
v beheaded for disagreeing with king
Giovanni Boccaccio
v Italian author/poet
v wrote in vernacular language
v works contained realistic, lively individuals
v did not follow medieval character set ups, which were based upon piety, charity, and humility
v wrote Decameron
§ greatly influenced European literature
§ was borrowed from by Chaucer and Shakespeare (2 great English writers)
§ subject of many poems
Francois Rabelais
v French Renaissance author, philosopher & humanist
v studied Greek, Latin, science, philology, law
v practiced medicine
v revolutionary satirical works on sociopolitical events
v ridiculed certain Roman Catholic practices
v invented new words & metaphors
v supported etymological spelling
v influential writer
Isabella d’Este
v Italian marquise
v commissioned sculptures in Roman style
v made Mantua one of the most cultured courts in Europe
v drawn by Titan and Leonardo da Vinci
v important role in Italian politics: advanced Mantua’s position
Miguel de Cervantes
v Spanish novelist, playwright, & poet
v wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha
§ considered 1st modern novel & great work of Western literature
§ written in vernacular language
v influenced writing – mastered dialogue and included much of it in his famous works
v also a soldier - fought in several battles, including the capture of Tunis
William Shakespeare
v English dramatist, playwright, actor, shareholder in theatre company (Lord Chamberlain’s Men)
v known for English literature during Elizabethan Era
v referred to as universal genius and master of language
v keen insight into human psychology
v wrote many comedies and dramas, which are still read today
Johannes Gutenberg
v German
v wrote Gutenberg’s Bible (1455) – 1st European book produced on a movable printing press
v played role in learning how to print with movable metal printing press
v helped with spread of knowledge
Hans Holbein the Younger
v German artist of Northern Renassiance
v illustrated Desiderius Erasmus’s satires
v helped with Martin Luther’s Bible translation
v painted many works for King Henry VIII and his court
v made portraits with ink and chalk of his subjects before painting
Hans Holbein the Older
v German painter
v created religious art in late Gothic style
v began the change of German art from Gothic to Renaissance style
v famous for illustrations in The Praise of Folly (see Desiderius Erasmus)
AP Psychology Jung notes
Jungian Dream Interpretation
Jung believed all of our dream help us understand our true self better. The four steps you take are as follows-
1- Little Dreams vs. Big Dream: Jung believed little dream are recollections of the day focusing on areas where we weren't being true to ourselves, we were not being the best we could be. Big Dreams are critical to our future, when we are dreaming things to shed light on the person we want to become (our IDEAL self according to Jung). These insight dreams give us guidance during critical phases of our life and help us to become more genuine in our future plans and endeavors.
2- Synchronicity: This describes how our dreams can predict events in our waking life- de ja vu dreams and how our dreams can reflect events which have already occurred in our waking life. The synchronicity is that our dream life is in sync with our waking life. Do your dream predict events OR do they reflect events which have already happened?
3- Compensatory theory: We compensate in our dream for what we lack in our waking lives. When we fall short of our IDEAL self, we dream that we succeed. We compensate for short coming in our dreams. Do your dreams reveal how you'd really like your life to be?
4-Amplification: Objects, people and events in our dreams can represent more than they appear on the surface. Brainstorm each object , person, or event and think about how these objects, people and events serve to help reveal aspects of your true self, your wants and desires.
Our dreams reveal our true self. Images come from our personal unconscious and collective unconscious (a universal, innate realm that is common in all people) and appear in our dreams to help us explore our true nature. Stock character, as Jung refers to them, archetypes, help reveal to us how we can better reach our ideal self.
AP Psychology Ch3 test notes
*ESSAY ANSWER FROM 2007 INCLUDED
amygdala – memories, fear, EMOTIONS
cerebellum – coordination, absorbs alcohol
hippocampus- memory formation
hypothalamus – sex, hunger, thirst drives; cirrcadian rhythms
reticular formation – arousal, attention, damaged = coma
thalamus – relays sensory info
supra chiasmatic nuclei – govern biological rhythms
brain = 2% body wgt, takes in 20% oxygen
Alzheimer’s – chloinergic neuron damage, too little acetylcholine, damaged limbic system & cerebral cortex
Parkinson’s – damage to dopaminergic neurons & basal ganglia
1. input (sensory signals from world)
2. processing (integration of info)
3. output (act on information)
neuron – rapid response to signals, send own signals; long, thin fibers extending out from body
axon = signal AWAY from body (generally one axon w/ many branches)
dendrite = signal TO body from other cells
synapse = gap btwn neurons
glial – “glue”, help neurons function/communication (direct their growth, keep chem environ stable, restore damage)
INSIDE AXON
- inside of cell more negative than outside
- electrochemical potential keeps + molec towards inside of cell
- sodium channels normally closed
- depolarization à threshold à sodium channels open
- more depolarization, more channels open
- electrochemical potential spreads down axon
- action potential = abrupt change in potential
- self propagating property = activity cascade
- action potential shoots down axon/dendrite = neuron is “fired” (all or nothing)
- larger diameter of axon = faster action potential
myelin = fatty substance around axons, speeds action potential (i.e. danger receptors)
multiple sclerosis = virus similar to myelin, body attacks, destors myelin à problems with vision, speech, balance, etc
refractory period = rest between firings, gates for K+ (potassium) open and ions flow out, membrane repolarizes
ESSAY
The autonomic part of the peripheal nervous system (PNS, parts of nervous system not including brain and spinal cord) reacts to danger with the flight/fight response (deal or run) through catabolic processes of the sympathetic nervous system, which gear the body up for the emergency. First, the thamalus, which can be seen as the processing part of the brain, sends out a signal to the hypothalamus that there is danger. The thalamus is what interprets a situation as fight or flight. The hypothalamus must then decide how much of an emergency it is. It is the “thermostat” of the body, calculating how much hormone the body needs to produce for the situation. In this way the nervous system works with the endocrine system, released hormones and chemicals into the body to help it gear up and react to an emergency.
The pituitary receives a signal from the hypothalamus to begin make hormones, and releases ACTH into the bloodstream. This hormone goes to the adrenal glands, causing them to pump out adrenaline. Adrenaline helps speed the body up by targeting certain organs, such as the heart and lungs. Adrenaline causes the heart to race and for the bronchi to constrict (causing rapid breathing).
The hormones also affect nerve cells. After entering a neuron, a hormone is called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters must fit like a lock and key into the receptor site on the neuron’s dendrite, or else it won’t work. A change in charge from positive to negative must occur in the neuron for it to reach its action potential and fire. A neuron fires all or nothing. Once it has fires, it becomes depolarized.
This process will repeat until the thalamus perceives that the situtation is no longer dangerous. The parasympathetic part of the PNS slows the body down once it realizes that the perceived emergency is either not actually an emergency, or that the danger has passed. The hypothalamus sends a message out that no more ACTH is needed and instead causes the pituitary gland to pump out Ach. This causes the adrenal glands to stop making adrenaline. The body then slowly returns to a normal, non-excited state.
While this is occuring, the somatic nervous system can consciously gear the body up through sympathetic process that may involve anything from voluntarily tensing muscles to jumping up and down. The somatic nervous system can also work through parasympathetic processes, slowing the body down, causing it to relax through an action as simple as taking deep breaths.
The ultimate goal of all this is to maintain homeostasis. It is important that the body be responsive to stimuli, but at the same time not be wasteful of resources (i.e. food/fuel, chemicals/hormones)
AP Psychology Ch1 Test notes
using Berstein, Carke-Stewart, Penner, Roy, Wickens fifth edition Psychology textbook
*sorry the formatting got weird!
Sciences
1) Physics (movement)
2) Chemistry (creation)
3) Biology (life)
4) Psychology (mind)
5) Sociology (society)
6) Anthropology (people)
Philosophy
Plato (428-348 BC)
- Socrates’ student
- world divided into matter (physical) and form (spirit)
- FORM more important
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
- MATTER more important
Aquinas (1225-1274 BC)
- BOTH matter (body) and form (mind)... not sure how they work together
Descartes (1596-1650)
- dualist à mind and body interact
- “I think, therefore I am” (Cognito ergo sum)
Bain (1818-1903)
- no causality or relationship between mind and body
Russell (1872-1970)
- can’t assume dependence of mind on body or vice versa
- independent?
- impossible to prove existence of matter, can’t perceive anything in its total absolute form
Goals of Psychology à PEC!
1) predict
2) explain
3) control
Fundamental Factors of Behavior à MOCC!
1) motivation
2) organism
3) competence
4) cognition
Hippocrates’ Fluids
- blood
o hopeful, optimistic, lively, sanguine
o too much à hyper
- phlem (mucus)
o too much = phlematic à calm
- black bile (unsure, feces?)
o too much à depressed, melancholic
- yellow bile (unsure, vomit? urine?)
o too much à irritable, edgey, choleric
Sheldon’s Sandbox Theory
- ectomorph
o tall, lanky skinny, frail
o restrained, quiet, introverted, nervous, loner
- mesomorph
o muscular, medium sized
o courageous, energetic, assertive, action seeking
- endomorph
o round, soft, chubby
o relaxed, social, love to eat, happy, loving
VOCAB
Ø psyche – mind, not physical
Ø logos – logic
Ø phrenology – bumps on head/shape of school affect personality
Ø Fechner à psychophysics, physical parts of reality, structuralist
Ø Ernest Weber à JND à just notice a little (2%) difference
Ø systematic desensitization = biological treatment... use it and get used to it
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Ø structuralism
§ physical part of cognition, issues w/ conscious
§ introspection – Wundt’s way of observing conscious experience
§ Titchner
Ø functionalism
§ impossible to know all parts of conscious, focus on how it works
§ Darwin – conscious ability to adapt
§ William James – stream of consciousness, how people adapt to environment
§ John Dewy – applying way mind functions to education, learn what we want when we want
Ø Gestalt
§ more than sum of parts, not just body or mind... deals withperception
§ Wertheimer
§ phenomenology – no absolute reality
§ Kurt Lewin – understand people by understanding their environment
§ Kohler – moments of insight, not taught, just discovered
Ø Behaviorism
§ minds and body functioning result of environmental influence
§ never in control of one’s actions
§ Watson & Skinner
Essay
1) BEHAVIORALOur responses to stimuli and the causes of our behavior lie in environmental influence. According to Skinner, our environment can reward us for certain actions with pleasure and can punish us for other actions. Over time we make the association and do less of the thing that results in punishment, and more of the thing that results in rewards
§ PAVLOV, classical conditioning = association
§ WATSON, observable behavior = all that matters is what you see
§ SKINNER, operant conditioning = bodies & minds learn consciously by consequence
· stop when ignored
· continue when reinforced
2) PSYCHOBIOLOGICALA chemical imbalance, or according to Darwin, a genetic predisposition to behavior
§ Lenneberg = people programmed to certain things
3) COGNITIVEOur mental sets—the way we normally thinks and what we normally do—is what causes our behavior. Romanes = the way we think has evolved
§ Wiener = cyberneticks
§ Chomsky = rules are innate
· schemas à beliefs
· stereotypes – beliefs based on lack of experience/knowledge, overgeneralization
· confirmation bias – schema supported at least once, initial belief later contradicted, but still held on to
§ assimilation – APPLY
§ accommodation – ADAPT
§ representativeness heuristic – generalization made not from personal experience
§ availability heuristic – assumptions from personal experience
§ framing – leading q’s
4) PSYCHOANALYTICThe inner turmoil within causes us to act the way we do. We have primitive urges and drives (i.e. Eros, the sexual drive) that are unconscious. According to Freud, this part of us is called our Id, and it is the selfish part
§ technique to get a unconscious, buried & rational beliefs = psychoanalysis
§ dream analysis, hypnosis, word association
§ unconscious ID, preconscious, conscious
5) HUMANISTICOur thoughts and feelings in the moment cause us the act the way we do. According to Maslow, if we are not yet self actualized or fully developed we may act in “incorrect” way, but in reality, people are basically good.
§ reality is the way you see it
§ anxious people, afraid of death, need reason to live
§ ROGERS, congruent = real & ideal self are same, you are person you want to befully functioning, using 100% of abilitiespositive regard = accepted as you areconditions of worth = feel like acceptance is based on being someone elsefree will = we choose how we think/feel
AP Biology Ch17 Test Notes
content of DNA = genetic info (in form of specific sequences of nucleotides)
DNA dictates protein synthesis and thus controls specific traits
gene expression = process by which DNA directs proteins synthesis
2 stages = transcription & translation
ribosome is part of cellular machinery for translation, polypeptide synthesis
transcription
- synthesis of RNA w/ DNA direction ...simple copying
- produces messenger RNA (mRNA) - genetic message carried to protein synthesizing place
translation
- synthesis of a polypeptide under direction of mRNA
- base sequence of mRNA translated into amino acid sequence of polypeptide
- site of translation = ribosome
ribosomes = site of translation
prokaryotes – mRNA produced by transcription immediately translated w/o more processing
eukaryotes – nuclear envelope separates transcription from translation
3 bases = codon = amino acid
DNA = protein synthesis, nucleotide sequence
script = mRNA, DNA directed
trans = ribosome, polypep, mRNA directed, base à amino acid
pro = no nucleus/processing, immediate translat
eu = nuclear envelope, nucleus à cyto, transcription = pre mRNA,
RNA poly pries RNA apart + hooks together RNA nucleotides
promoter = signal of initiation, where RNA poly attaches
terminator = ends transcript
transcription factors mediate binding of RNA poly & initiation transcript
no need for primer for RNA poly
transcription initiation complex = completed assembly of transcription factors & RNA pol II bound to a promoter
stretch of DNA transcribed into RNA molec = transcription unit
DNA dictates protein synthesis and thus controls specific traits
gene expression = process by which DNA directs proteins synthesis
2 stages = transcription & translation
ribosome is part of cellular machinery for translation, polypeptide synthesis
transcription
- synthesis of RNA w/ DNA direction ...simple copying
- produces messenger RNA (mRNA) - genetic message carried to protein synthesizing place
translation
- synthesis of a polypeptide under direction of mRNA
- base sequence of mRNA translated into amino acid sequence of polypeptide
- site of translation = ribosome
ribosomes = site of translation
prokaryotes – mRNA produced by transcription immediately translated w/o more processing
eukaryotes – nuclear envelope separates transcription from translation
3 bases = codon = amino acid
DNA = protein synthesis, nucleotide sequence
script = mRNA, DNA directed
trans = ribosome, polypep, mRNA directed, base à amino acid
pro = no nucleus/processing, immediate translat
eu = nuclear envelope, nucleus à cyto, transcription = pre mRNA,
RNA poly pries RNA apart + hooks together RNA nucleotides
promoter = signal of initiation, where RNA poly attaches
terminator = ends transcript
transcription factors mediate binding of RNA poly & initiation transcript
no need for primer for RNA poly
transcription initiation complex = completed assembly of transcription factors & RNA pol II bound to a promoter
stretch of DNA transcribed into RNA molec = transcription unit
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