self concept
This component of self involves the beliefs people hold about who they are, as well as what characteristics they have.
reference groups
Festinger’s theory of social comparison states that people assess their own value based on those around them. This terms refers to the people to whom you feel are similar to you that serve as your basis of comparison.
relative deprivation
This phenomenon is produced when individuals feel their status is unfavorable compared to that of others. It is the belief that no matter how much a person gets, they deserve more.
social identity
This term refers to a person’s beliefs about the groups they belong to (nationally, religiously, etc.); it is a large part of their self concept.
self-schema
This term refers to a person’s mental representation of himself, which may shape that individual’s thoughts, experiences, and emotions.
self-fulfilling prophecy
This process occurs when a person does something that causes others to confirm that person’s impressions or beliefs or when schemas cause people to inadvertently lead people to behave according to our expectations.
attribution
This term deserves the process people go through to explain the causes of behaviors, both their own and that of others. This process helps us to understand and predict later actions, as well as try to control situations.
fundamental attribution error
This term describes people’s tendency to overattribute others’ behaviors to internal factors (i.e. their personality), instead of external factors (i.e. stress).
actor-observer bias
This term describe people’s tendency to attribute their own behavior to external causes, even while attributing the behavior of others to internal causes, due to the different kinds of information they have about the behavior of themselves versus the behavior of others. This phenomenon is especially common inappropriate or inadequate behavior is concerned.
self-serving bias
This term describes the tendency people have to take personal credit for success (internal cause), while blaming failures on external causes.
attitude
This tendency to act, feel, or think negatively or positively towards things in our environment is a part of social cognition that has been studied for an extremely long time. This tendency guides how we react to others, what we do, what we support, and so on. There are three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective/emotional (feelings), and behavioral (actions).
cognitive dissonance theory
This theory states that people want their attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts to be consistent with each another and with the individual’s behavior. When inconsistencies are noticed, people feel anxious and attempt to reduce the dissonance—often by changing attitudes rather than behaviors.
self-perception theory
This theory challenges the cognitive dissonance theory. It states that individuals often find themselves unsure about their attitudes, and thus must reflect on their behaviors under certain circumstances and then infer what their attitude should be. There is no tension in this process.
contact hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that prejudices and stereotypes towards certain people will diminish as contact with the people increases.
matching hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that individuals have a tendency to date, marry, or form relationships with people of the same level of physical attractiveness. People compromise because they are afraid of rejection from those with physical appeal greater than their own.
norms
This term refers to learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should or shouldn’t do in certain situations. We inherit them from our teacher, parents, and peers. They describe what is expected of people and help make social situations less ambiguous and more comfortable.
deindividuation
This psychological state occurs when a person—often a member of a group—loses his sense of individuality. This loss heightens feelings of cohesiveness with his group and increases emotional arousal. The focus of attention on membership in the group and the values of group serves to reduce a sense of personal responsibility by creating a feeling of anonymity, and also shifts attention away from internal thoughts to external environment.
empathy-altruism theory
This beliefs states that the likelihood of people engaging in unselfish helping acts (altruism) will do so even when the cost is high when they feel empathetic toward the person in need.
social loafing
This terms describes how people have a tendency to not work as hard when in a group, as it is difficult to identity an individual’s contributions. Individuals often exert more effort when performing alone.
conformity
This terms describes when a person changes their beliefs or behavior to match those around them. It is the result of group pressure.
compliance
This terms describes when people adjust their behavior after requested to do so. Explicit requests are spoken or directly indicated. Implicit requests are unspoken but understood.
frustrating-aggression hypothesis
Originally developed by John Dollard, this idea states that frustration always results in aggression, and that aggression will not occur unless someone is frustrated. This hypothesis, however, is said to be too simply and general.
prisoner’s dilemma game
This situation occurs when two criminals are separated after a crime. They have the choice of confessing or remaining silent. If neither confess, they will mostly likely be jailed for only 1 year for a minor offense. If both confess, they are likely to get a 5 year sentence. However, if one confesses and the other does not, the one that confessed will be released while the non-confessor will be jailed for up to 10 years. Responses can be cooperative or competitive. It is a mixed-motive conflict.
altruism
This term describes an unselfish concern for another’s welfare. It is a helping behavior.
arousal: cost-reward theory
This belief states that people find the sight of a victim anxiety-provoking and distressing. Their emotions motivate them to reduce their unpleasant arousal, namely the victim’s situation.
As physiological arousal of bystanders increases, so does the likelihood of them offering assistance.
group think
This phenomenon occurs when members of a group are not able to completely or realistically evaluate the potential negative consequences of a decision or the options open to them. Three conditions increase the likelihood of this to occur: isolation from outside influence, time pressure or extremely stress, biased leadership.
zero-sum games
This terms describes situations in which conflict is extremely likely. In these cases, the gains of one person is subtracted from another person’s resources; the sum of losses and gains is zero.
Showing posts with label Psychology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Psychology. Show all posts
Thursday, May 8, 2008
Thursday, May 1, 2008
AP Psychology Ch16 vocab
CHAPTER 16 - Treatment and Therapy
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
AP Psychology Ch15 vocab, test notes
Psychological Disorders
Culture-general disorders - appear almost worldwide, but symptoms differ according to cultural backgrounds.
Culture-specific disorders – observed in only certain areas and are unique to certain cultures.
Diathesis-stress model - focuses on biological imbalances, inherited traits, brain damage, enduring psychological traits, and early learning experiences (biopsychosocial causes) that may create a predisposition for a psychological disorder; appearance of a disorder depends on stressors encountered by individual… when stress levels exceed coping capacity, panic response is triggered and psychological disorders may arise
Positive symptoms: unwanted additions to a person’s mental life... include distortions or exaggerated behavioral, perceptual, or cognitive functioning (i.e. delusions or hallucinations)
Negative symptoms: take away from elements of normal mental life; decrease or cause a loss of normal functioning... [ex: flat affect (restricted emotional expression), alogia (lack of speech)]
Personality disorder - long-standing, inflexible patterns of behavior, affects all areas of functioning
10 types: paranoid, schizoid (detached, restricted emotions), schizotypal (detached, odd perceptions/thoughts/ behaviors), dependent, obsessive-compulsive, avoidant, histrionic (overly dramatic, shallow, desire to be center of attention), narcissistic, borderline (unstable, impulsive, angry, suicidal), antisocial
General anxiety disorder – aka free-floating anxiety, involves non-specific, excessive, and long-lasting anxiety; individuals feel worried, jumpy, and irritable, believing disaster is imminent
Abnormal behavior
-not psychologically healthy, prevent effective everyday functioning
-socially unacceptable
-faulty reality perception
-self defeating, causes personal destress
Historical treatment of the insane
-prehistoric: supernatural, valued
-Greek/Roman: God’s way, embraced mental problems, bodies different?, kind treatment
-Middle Ages: Satan made people that way, torture
-Colonial Times: “witches” often OCD
Criterion for Abnormal/Normal Behavior
statistical: anything seen only in small % of popu
concensual: whatever society dictates is normal is normal (general population’s beliefs)
functioning: if a person can function, they are normal
personal: how you feel about your situation
Models of Psychological Disorders
Biomedical: something physically wrong, i.e. chemical imbalances, genetics, endocrine system problems
Psychoanalytic: repressed past problems, unconscious conflict
Cognitive: faulty constructs, your perspective causes problems
Behavioral: learned to be sick to get rewards/attention
Sociological: has to do w/ social class and social stress (poor working class = lowest #)
Categorizing disorders
psychological – in the mind
systemic – disease/disorder
traumatic – environment or life experience
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
DSM: 1962, 60 disorders
DSM II: 1968, original found not adequate, 2 categories created: neurotic (stress) & psychotic (imbalances)
DSM III: 1980, 150 disorders, based on what doctors saw in patients, neurotic/psychotic categories thrown out (not enough), homosexuality removed as disoder
DSM III-R: 1987, 250 disorders, 17 categories
DSM IV: 1994, close to 500 disorders, based on patient symptoms directly
axis
1. major clinical symptoms, basic disorders
2. personality/development disorders
3. physical problems
4. stress level in past year
5. independence
ESSAY
Create a case history for each of the disorders on the test. Make sure to describe the cause, type of onset, symptoms, behaviors, and treatments
Conversion Hysteria/Disorder: loss of physical functions w/o physical cause
onset – immediate
cause – traumatic
treatment – psychoanalysis
**type of somatoform disorder; occurs when an individual appears to be blind, deaf, paralyzed, or insensitive to pain when they are not; symptoms tend to appear with severe stress; individuals show surprisingly little concern over condition
Bipolar Disorder: manic & depressive states
onset – gradual
cause – genetic and biochemical (monoamide oxide)
treatment – neuroleptics (antipsychotics), lithium
*characterized by the appearance of 2 alternating emotional extremes: depression & mania
Mania describes an extremely elated, energetic, impulsive, reckless, agitated emotional state
Seasonal Affective Disorder: mood shifts with season, depression, weight gain
onset – gradual, episodic
cause – environmental
treatment – antidepressants, light therapy
Schizoprenia: hallucinations & delusions
1) paranoid – delusions of grandeur 2) catatonic – stupor/frozen to excited states
3) hebephrenic/disorganized – childish, word salads,
onset – can be gradual, reaction/immediate, or just happen upon adulthood
cause – organic brain disease, genetic, imbalance of dopamine
treatment – neuroleptics, pherothiazines
Paranoid Reaction: no hallucinations, delusional, lack insight
1) state: trauma and acute 2) true: always been a little off
onset – organized, gradual
cause – biochemical
treatment – neuroleptics, phenothiazines
OCD: thoughts that won’t go away & repetitive ritualistic behaviors that serve no purpose
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – antibodies for strep, chemical imbalance of serotonin
treatment – SSRI antidepressants, systematic desensitization, lobotomy (rare)
Panic Attacks: heart palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, difficulty breathing, episodic w/o cause or warning
onset – immediate, reactive?
cause – unequal blood flow to right side of brain, genetic?
treatment – drug therapy (Xanax), antidepressants, lobotomy
Post Traumatic Stress Disorders: flashbacks, nightmares
onset – reactive, immediate
cause – repression surrounding traumatic event
treatment – SSRI’s, psychoanalysis, EMDR
Phobias: unreasonable fears
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – trauma, associated with panic attacks
treatment – MAO inhibitors, systematic desensitization
Dissociative Disorders
1) amnesia: memory loss 2) fugue: memory loss plus flight, end up somewhere else 3) identity disorder: alters splitting from core personality 4) depersonalization: lose control of body
onset –gradual or acute
cause – repression, childhood abuse, trauma
treatment – psychoanalysis
Monday, March 10, 2008
AP Psychology Ch12 Test notes/essay
Development Unit Essay
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (8 stages) WITH FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (6 stages)
Both Freud and Erikson’s theories on development have stages that match up age and principal behaviors established. Freud, however, believed that in each stage we have a libidinal focus, while Erikson believed we go through stages based on our social interactions. Freud’s stages also stop after age 12, whereas Erikson’s continue throughout life and don’t end until we die.
Both Freud and Erikson’s first stages deal with trust as the principal behavior established. Freud focused on the mouth and believed that people in this stage get their arousal orally, generally through breastfeeding. Freud believed that in moments of stress or hardship, we may regress back to earlier stages. This can be seen when six year olds children get frightened and suck on their thumb, or when an teenager has a hard day and goes out for 3 Whoopers. Erikson’s first stage is trust vs. mistrust and deals with having our needs met (“I am what I am given”). If we our needs are met (i.e. hungry, get fed; cold, get blanket), we develop into trusting individuals. If we don’t have needs our met, we feel worthless and fail to develop trust and may be suspicious of people later in life, even if we have strong bonds with them. Erikson believed that people who were given too much early on—for example, they had parents that would give them food before they even felt hungry—will become gullible and overly trusting people.
Both Freud and Erikson’s second stages deal with competency as the principal behavior established. Freud believed that in this stage we get our arousal anally, especially people in this stage are generally being potty trained. The potty training results in either gained feelings or control or a feeling of lack of control. According to Freud, if someone were to have difficulty with this stage—or any other stage—they may become fixated or stuck. Anally fixated people fall under two catergories: those who are anal expulsive are very messy because they believe they have no control over their lives, and those who are anal retentive, who are extremely neat perfectionists who desperately seek control over everything in their lives. People can also anally regressed and become very neat in times of stress (i.e. when a student cleans his room before a big exam, instead of studying). Erikson’s second stage deals with autonomy vs doubt (“I am what I will”). We develop into independent people if our parents allowed us to fail. If a child’s parents were constantly doing everything for them then they always feel like they are not good enough or not competent enough, and will learn to doubt themselves.
Two of Freud’s stages actually match up with the principal behavior established in Erikson’s third stage. The first of Freud’s stages involves phallic self-stimulation (3rd stage) and learning about one’s body and what feels good. The seconds of Freud’s stages involves Oedipal/Electra complexes (4th stage), in which children focus on their opposite sex parent. Boys become attracted to their mothers and fear their fathers because they think their fathers will castrate them. Girls become attracted to their fathers and begin to think women are not as important as men because men have penises. Girls develop penis envy (which Freud claimed girls never get over) and think that the only thing they can have in place of a penis is a baby. Thus, the principal behavior established is the learning of gender roles. Erikson’s third stage involves initiative vs guilt (“I am what I imagine”). Children either take the initiative to dream big and reach for the stars, or feel guilty for trying things because their parents do not support them or show approval. Children learn to feel shame.
Both Freud and Erikson’s next stages focus on learning as the principal behavior established. For Freud, the fifth stage is a latent stage, which involves no libidinal focus because children believe sex is “yucky” due to the guilt they feel after working through their complexes in the previous stage. Thus, this stage simply involves focusing on school and education. According to Freud, this is when children develop morality and learn things such as shame and disgust. Erikson’s parallel is his fourth stage, industry vs inferiority. Industry involves learning and feeling smart. Inferiority is felt by those in low groups (i.e. the “slower” readers or the “easy” math group) who are held back. The key phrase is “I am what I can learn.”
Then, Erikson’s theory has a fifth stage, for which Freud does not truly have a parallel. Erikson’s stage involves identity vs role confusion. During this period, individuals try to discover who they are and work through issues involving time, sexual polarization, and self confidence, among other things.
Freud’s last stage corresponds with the principal behaviors established in Erikson’s sixth stage. Freud’s stage involves genetalia as the libidinal focus, only unlike the phallic and complex stages, this time individuals want others (not parents) to stimulate them. In this stage, people learn to establish relationships. Erikson’s parallel stage involves intimacy versus isolation. We develop relationships with others in this stage, and must consider whether we want to get married and commit ourselves to someone else.
While Freud didn’t believe that development extended beyond his genitalia stage, Erikson still had two more stages, the seventh stage being generativity vs self absorption, in which we learn to become involved in the community. People who are on the generativity side contribute to the world around them, whereas those who are self absorbed only live in the small space that they occupy and do not add to the community around them. The stage in Erikson’s theory is integrity vs despair, in which a person must deal with accepting their life and eventual death. People will integrity will look back and see all the wonderful things they did. They will see accomplishments and will believe their life was meaningful. People who despair reflect on their life only to see failure and missed opportunities. They reflect on what they should have done or could have done better.
AP Psychology Theories on Development
Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
Wednesday, January 9, 2008
AP Psychology Ch10 vocab
1. Intelligence Quotients, also known as IQs, are established by dividing one’s mental age—which is determined by calculating the age level of the most advanced items consistently answered correctly on an IQ test—by one’s actual age and multiplying that number by 100. Thus, “average” intelligence is represented by an IQ of 100. IQ scores reflect relative standing within a population of one’s age.
2. The verbal scale is the part of the IQ test that involves the six subtests that require verbal skills—such as defining vocabulary or answering questions.
3. The performance scale is made up by the five subtests of the IQ test that have little or no verbal content, such as understanding how to manipulate materials or relate objects in space.
4. Aptitude tests measure one’s capacity to learn or perform certain things and are ultimately supposed to assess one’s potential. The SAT and ACT are included in this category of tests.
5. Achievement tests measure accomplishments and knowledge of particular areas. They may focus on specific abilities.
6. Norms are calculated using test scores that summarize a test taker’s performance. They give us percentages and enable people to determine what is below or above average.
7. Reliability refers to when a test has repeatable or stable results.
8. Validity is a degree to which a test measures what it intended to measure. There are several types of validity. Content validity is the extent to which the test’s content relates to what it is supposed to measure (i.e. only math on an intelligence test = low validity). Construct validity is the degree to which test scores are in accordance with the theory on what is being tested. Criterion validity is how much test scores correlate with another direct and independent measure of what the test supposedly assesses.
9. Factor Analysis is when correlations are analyzed to identify underlying aspects. When analyzing the factors of intelligence, factors such as verbal fluency, numerical ability, and memory were found.
10. Fluid Intelligence refers to basic reasoning and problem solving, and allows people to evaluate, think critically, and understand concepts.
11. Crystallized Intelligence involves specific knowledge gained from using fluid intelligence, such as vocabulary.
12. The Information Processing Approach analyzes the process of intelligent behavior, as opposed to the products of intelligence. It looks at mental operations necessary and focuses on aspects of learning, attention, memory, and processing.
13. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence deals with three different types of intelligence, namely practical (problem solving), creative, and analytic (measured by traditional IQ tests) intelligence. Sternberg believed that all facets of intelligence were necessary.
14. Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences was based on the idea that people possess more than on intellectual potential and that each of these intelligences involves problem solving skills. The eight specific intelligences proposed were: linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, body-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence.
15. Divergent Thinking is the ability to creatively think along numerous paths in order to come up with many solutions to one problem.
16. Convergent Thinking is measured by traditional IQ tests. It is the ability to apply knowledge and logic to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem.
17. Familial Retardation is mild retardation typical seen in people who come from a family of low socioeconomic status and are likely to have a relative who is also retarded (more so than those with retardation who suffered a genetic defect). People with mild retardation may perform mental tasks more slowly and may not be skilled at problem solving or retaining facts.
18. Metacognition is the knowledge of what strategies to apply when necessary, and how to use and adapt these strategies when in new situations in order to gain knowledge and mast problems.
2. The verbal scale is the part of the IQ test that involves the six subtests that require verbal skills—such as defining vocabulary or answering questions.
3. The performance scale is made up by the five subtests of the IQ test that have little or no verbal content, such as understanding how to manipulate materials or relate objects in space.
4. Aptitude tests measure one’s capacity to learn or perform certain things and are ultimately supposed to assess one’s potential. The SAT and ACT are included in this category of tests.
5. Achievement tests measure accomplishments and knowledge of particular areas. They may focus on specific abilities.
6. Norms are calculated using test scores that summarize a test taker’s performance. They give us percentages and enable people to determine what is below or above average.
7. Reliability refers to when a test has repeatable or stable results.
8. Validity is a degree to which a test measures what it intended to measure. There are several types of validity. Content validity is the extent to which the test’s content relates to what it is supposed to measure (i.e. only math on an intelligence test = low validity). Construct validity is the degree to which test scores are in accordance with the theory on what is being tested. Criterion validity is how much test scores correlate with another direct and independent measure of what the test supposedly assesses.
9. Factor Analysis is when correlations are analyzed to identify underlying aspects. When analyzing the factors of intelligence, factors such as verbal fluency, numerical ability, and memory were found.
10. Fluid Intelligence refers to basic reasoning and problem solving, and allows people to evaluate, think critically, and understand concepts.
11. Crystallized Intelligence involves specific knowledge gained from using fluid intelligence, such as vocabulary.
12. The Information Processing Approach analyzes the process of intelligent behavior, as opposed to the products of intelligence. It looks at mental operations necessary and focuses on aspects of learning, attention, memory, and processing.
13. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence deals with three different types of intelligence, namely practical (problem solving), creative, and analytic (measured by traditional IQ tests) intelligence. Sternberg believed that all facets of intelligence were necessary.
14. Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences was based on the idea that people possess more than on intellectual potential and that each of these intelligences involves problem solving skills. The eight specific intelligences proposed were: linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, body-kinesthetic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence.
15. Divergent Thinking is the ability to creatively think along numerous paths in order to come up with many solutions to one problem.
16. Convergent Thinking is measured by traditional IQ tests. It is the ability to apply knowledge and logic to narrow down the number of possible solutions to a problem.
17. Familial Retardation is mild retardation typical seen in people who come from a family of low socioeconomic status and are likely to have a relative who is also retarded (more so than those with retardation who suffered a genetic defect). People with mild retardation may perform mental tasks more slowly and may not be skilled at problem solving or retaining facts.
18. Metacognition is the knowledge of what strategies to apply when necessary, and how to use and adapt these strategies when in new situations in order to gain knowledge and mast problems.
AP Psychology Ch8 vocab
1. Evoked brain potentials is a small, temporary change in voltage on an EEG that occurs in response to specific events.
2. Cognitive maps are mental representations of familiar parts of one’s world that are carried in one’s memory.
3. Prototypes are members of a natural concept that possess all or most of its characteristic features.
4. Schemas are mental representations or generalizations we develop about categories or objects, events, and people.
5. Scripts are schemas about familiar sequences of events or activities.
6. Propositions are ideas about the relationships between and among concepts, relating one concept to another.
7. Mental models are clusters of propositions that contain our understanding of how things work.
8. Algorithms are systematic methods that always produce a correct solution to a problem, if a solution exists.
9. Heuristics are mental shortcuts one takes to reach a conclusion that is probably, but not necessarily, correct.
10. Representativeness heuristic s where people decide whether an example belongs in a certain class on the basis of how similar it is to the other items in that class.
11. Availability heuristic involves judging the probability that an event may occur or that a hypothesis may be true by how easily the hypothesis or examples of the event can be brought to the mind.
12. Functional fixedness is the tendency to use familiar objects in familiar rather than creative ways.
13. Confirmation bias states that humans have a strong bias to confirm rather than to refute the hypothesis they have chosen.
14. Artificial intelligence is the ability for computer systems to imitate the products of human perception and thought.
15. In group polarization, discussions favor the majority view and criticize the minority view, thus having a tendency towards making extreme decisions.
16. Grammar is the set of rules for combining symbols, or words.
17. Phonemes are defined as the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech.
18. Morphemes are the smallest unit or language that has meaning.
19. Syntax is the set of grammatical rules that determine how words are combined to form sentences.
20. Semantics is the set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences.
21. Surface structures, or word strings that people produce, contain deep structure, or an abstract representation of the relationships expressed in the sentence.
22. Telegraphic speech consists of two-word pairs that are brief and to the point, leaving our any word that’s not essential.
2. Cognitive maps are mental representations of familiar parts of one’s world that are carried in one’s memory.
3. Prototypes are members of a natural concept that possess all or most of its characteristic features.
4. Schemas are mental representations or generalizations we develop about categories or objects, events, and people.
5. Scripts are schemas about familiar sequences of events or activities.
6. Propositions are ideas about the relationships between and among concepts, relating one concept to another.
7. Mental models are clusters of propositions that contain our understanding of how things work.
8. Algorithms are systematic methods that always produce a correct solution to a problem, if a solution exists.
9. Heuristics are mental shortcuts one takes to reach a conclusion that is probably, but not necessarily, correct.
10. Representativeness heuristic s where people decide whether an example belongs in a certain class on the basis of how similar it is to the other items in that class.
11. Availability heuristic involves judging the probability that an event may occur or that a hypothesis may be true by how easily the hypothesis or examples of the event can be brought to the mind.
12. Functional fixedness is the tendency to use familiar objects in familiar rather than creative ways.
13. Confirmation bias states that humans have a strong bias to confirm rather than to refute the hypothesis they have chosen.
14. Artificial intelligence is the ability for computer systems to imitate the products of human perception and thought.
15. In group polarization, discussions favor the majority view and criticize the minority view, thus having a tendency towards making extreme decisions.
16. Grammar is the set of rules for combining symbols, or words.
17. Phonemes are defined as the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech.
18. Morphemes are the smallest unit or language that has meaning.
19. Syntax is the set of grammatical rules that determine how words are combined to form sentences.
20. Semantics is the set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences.
21. Surface structures, or word strings that people produce, contain deep structure, or an abstract representation of the relationships expressed in the sentence.
22. Telegraphic speech consists of two-word pairs that are brief and to the point, leaving our any word that’s not essential.
AP Psychology Ch7 vocab
1. Encoding is a step in the process in which information to be remembered is put into a memory. This occurs when sensory information is put into a form that is accepted and used by the memory system.
2. Storage, the maintenance of information over a period of time, is the second basic memory process.
3. The third basic memory process is called retrieval. Retrieval involves locating information stored in one’s memory and brining it into consciousness. It may include both recall (retrieval without assistance) and recognition (retrieval of information using clues).
4. Episodic memory involve a specific event that occurred while you were present (“I remember when...”).
5. Semantic memory is involves generalized knowledge and does not involves specific events (“I know that...”).
6. Procedural memory is often difficult to describe or explain verbally, and may involve a complicated sequence of movements. These memories involve remembering how to do things.
7. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating an item over and over. It is often effective for remembering information for a short period of time.
8. Elaborative rehearsal is a more effective type of mental rehearsal that will help you remember something for a long period of time. It involves thinking about how new material relates to known material already stored in your memory
9. Transfer-appropriate processing suggests that memories ultimate depend on and are affected by how well encoding processes match up with information retrieval.
10. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) is an approach to memory that suggests that new experiences become integrated with people’s existing knowledge or memories, and aren’t simply “new facts.”
11. Sensory memories hold information long enough for it to be processes. Because incoming stimuli must be analyzed by the brain and compared to what is already in the long term memory, sensory stimuli need to be stored briefly, but completely. Sensory registers hold fleeting memories, but are capable of storing relatively large amounts of information.
12. Selective attention focuses mental resources on only a part of the stimulus field and therefore controls what information is processed further.
13. Chunks refer to the number of meaningful groupings of information.
14. Primary effect is the tendency of the first two-three words in a list to be recalled very well, whereas recency effect is the ease of recalling words near the end of the list.
15. Memory is state-dependant when a person’s internal state can aid or impede retrieval.
16. Decay is the gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus as it becomes less distinct over time.
17. Interference is a process through which the storage or retrieval of information in impaired by the presence of other information.
18. Using long-term memory retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information.
19. Also using long-term memory, proactive interference occurs when old information interferers with learning and remembering old information.
20. Anterograde amnesia is a loss of memory for any events occurring after the injury.
21. Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory for any event that occurred before the injury.
22. Mnemonics are strategies for placing information into a context that is organized to help information retrieval (i.e. accronyms).
2. Storage, the maintenance of information over a period of time, is the second basic memory process.
3. The third basic memory process is called retrieval. Retrieval involves locating information stored in one’s memory and brining it into consciousness. It may include both recall (retrieval without assistance) and recognition (retrieval of information using clues).
4. Episodic memory involve a specific event that occurred while you were present (“I remember when...”).
5. Semantic memory is involves generalized knowledge and does not involves specific events (“I know that...”).
6. Procedural memory is often difficult to describe or explain verbally, and may involve a complicated sequence of movements. These memories involve remembering how to do things.
7. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating an item over and over. It is often effective for remembering information for a short period of time.
8. Elaborative rehearsal is a more effective type of mental rehearsal that will help you remember something for a long period of time. It involves thinking about how new material relates to known material already stored in your memory
9. Transfer-appropriate processing suggests that memories ultimate depend on and are affected by how well encoding processes match up with information retrieval.
10. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) is an approach to memory that suggests that new experiences become integrated with people’s existing knowledge or memories, and aren’t simply “new facts.”
11. Sensory memories hold information long enough for it to be processes. Because incoming stimuli must be analyzed by the brain and compared to what is already in the long term memory, sensory stimuli need to be stored briefly, but completely. Sensory registers hold fleeting memories, but are capable of storing relatively large amounts of information.
12. Selective attention focuses mental resources on only a part of the stimulus field and therefore controls what information is processed further.
13. Chunks refer to the number of meaningful groupings of information.
14. Primary effect is the tendency of the first two-three words in a list to be recalled very well, whereas recency effect is the ease of recalling words near the end of the list.
15. Memory is state-dependant when a person’s internal state can aid or impede retrieval.
16. Decay is the gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus as it becomes less distinct over time.
17. Interference is a process through which the storage or retrieval of information in impaired by the presence of other information.
18. Using long-term memory retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information.
19. Also using long-term memory, proactive interference occurs when old information interferers with learning and remembering old information.
20. Anterograde amnesia is a loss of memory for any events occurring after the injury.
21. Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory for any event that occurred before the injury.
22. Mnemonics are strategies for placing information into a context that is organized to help information retrieval (i.e. accronyms).
AP Psychology Ch6 vocab
1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
Monday, December 10, 2007
AP Psychology Ch6 vocab with brief notes
Chapter 6 Vocabulary
learning – when experience modifies pre-existing behavior/understanding; simplest form = learning about individual stimuli
two major kinds
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
Habituation = two interacting processes
A process: fixed, automatic, emotional, unlearned reponse
B process: slower reaction, triggered by onset of A and counteracts its effects (compensate and decrease)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = stimulus that elicit response without conditioning --> unconditioned response (UCR) = unlearned reaction
conditioned stimulus (CS) = new stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (CR) = response it comes to elicit
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus create a similar conditioned response, although to a lesser degree. The more similar the new stimulus to the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response.
Operant conditioning = same as instrumental conditioning, except with emphasis on organism learning response through operating on environment; behavior changed through consequences
operant – response that has effect on world, operates on environment (i.e. child tells parents he is hungry and thus influences appearance of food)
reinforcer – increases probability that operant behavior will occur again
positive = strengthen response when pleasant or positive stimulus occurs after behavior
negative = strengthen response through removal/termination of something unpleasant after behavior
learned helplessness – tendency to give up any effort to control the environment
latent learning – not evident when it first occurs
cognitive map – mental representation of particular spatial arrangement
1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
learning – when experience modifies pre-existing behavior/understanding; simplest form = learning about individual stimuli
two major kinds
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
Habituation = two interacting processes
A process: fixed, automatic, emotional, unlearned reponse
B process: slower reaction, triggered by onset of A and counteracts its effects (compensate and decrease)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = stimulus that elicit response without conditioning --> unconditioned response (UCR) = unlearned reaction
conditioned stimulus (CS) = new stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (CR) = response it comes to elicit
Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus create a similar conditioned response, although to a lesser degree. The more similar the new stimulus to the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response.
Operant conditioning = same as instrumental conditioning, except with emphasis on organism learning response through operating on environment; behavior changed through consequences
operant – response that has effect on world, operates on environment (i.e. child tells parents he is hungry and thus influences appearance of food)
reinforcer – increases probability that operant behavior will occur again
positive = strengthen response when pleasant or positive stimulus occurs after behavior
negative = strengthen response through removal/termination of something unpleasant after behavior
learned helplessness – tendency to give up any effort to control the environment
latent learning – not evident when it first occurs
cognitive map – mental representation of particular spatial arrangement
1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.
2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.
3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).
4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).
5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.
6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.
7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.
8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.
9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.
10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.
11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.
12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.
13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.
14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).
15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.
16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.
17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.
18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.
19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.
20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”
Wednesday, December 5, 2007
AP Psychology Ch9 test notes and vocab
consciousness – awareness of mental processes and outside world, info intake from self/environment
nonconscious – automatic body functions (heart, blood sugar level)
subconscious –
preconscious – not conscious, outside of awareness, may become conscious (readily brought to conscious level or into awareness)
unconscious - may alter/effect thoughts, feelings, and actions; difficult to bring into awareness, may be actively kept out of consciousness (Freud)
dualism – consciousness separate from mind
materialism – consciousness and mind are same thing
REM sleep
BRAIN WAVES
Alpha – relaxed state
Beta – alert state
Delta – deep sleep
VOCAB
Narcolepsy - daytime sleep disorder, generally starts when an individual is 15-25y/o, causes individual to switch from active waking states to REM sleep
Night terrors - most common in boys, occur during stage 3/4 sleep, horrible dream images, may produce screams/fear, often unrecalled
Sleep apnea - breathing stop during the night, must wake to resume normal breathing, moments of awakening not remembered in the morning, but may cause tiredness, and loss of attention/learning ability.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome - when a sleeping baby stops breathing and dies, generally occurs 2 to 4 months after birth
Circadian rhythms - cycles of behavior & physiology that repeat approximately ever 24 hours (25 hours for humans), example of the rhythmic nature of life, may be influenced by signals such as light and dark hours.
lucid dreaming – when an individual is aware that they are dreaming during their dream
role theory of hypnosis - hypnosis is not altered state of consciousness; participants are simply meeting social demands by playing a certain role
state theory of hypnosis - based on idea that hypnosis creates altered state of consciousness and can produce dramatic effects, such as removing warts
dissociation theory - proposed by Hilgard, blends the role and state theories, proposes that hypnosis is not a specific state, but a condition in which normal though and action control is temporarily reorganized or broken up
psychoactive drugs - affect the brain, may change consciousness or other psychological processes
blood-brain barrier - a feature of blood vessels in the brain which prevent certain substances from entering tissue
agnoists - fit into and affect receptors the same way a neurotransmitter would, mimic the effects a normal neurotransmitter would create
antagonists - similar enough to neurotransmitters to take their place in receptor sites, but unable to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
psychological dependence - when person continues drug use despite undesirable effects and develops such a need for the drug that they become preoccupied with obtaining it in order to maintain sense of well-being
nonconscious – automatic body functions (heart, blood sugar level)
subconscious –
preconscious – not conscious, outside of awareness, may become conscious (readily brought to conscious level or into awareness)
unconscious - may alter/effect thoughts, feelings, and actions; difficult to bring into awareness, may be actively kept out of consciousness (Freud)
dualism – consciousness separate from mind
materialism – consciousness and mind are same thing
REM sleep
30-45min into stage 4, when most dreams occurQuiet sleep – slow brain waves, deep breathing, calm heart beat, low bp, alpha waves (relaxed state)
delta waves desynchronize, theta waves reappear
brain activity increases & bp, breathing, and heart rate resemble those of an alert/aroused person
muscle tone falls, spasms may occur
most prevalent during infancy
BRAIN WAVES
Alpha – relaxed state
Beta – alert state
Delta – deep sleep
VOCAB
Narcolepsy - daytime sleep disorder, generally starts when an individual is 15-25y/o, causes individual to switch from active waking states to REM sleep
Night terrors - most common in boys, occur during stage 3/4 sleep, horrible dream images, may produce screams/fear, often unrecalled
Sleep apnea - breathing stop during the night, must wake to resume normal breathing, moments of awakening not remembered in the morning, but may cause tiredness, and loss of attention/learning ability.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome - when a sleeping baby stops breathing and dies, generally occurs 2 to 4 months after birth
Circadian rhythms - cycles of behavior & physiology that repeat approximately ever 24 hours (25 hours for humans), example of the rhythmic nature of life, may be influenced by signals such as light and dark hours.
lucid dreaming – when an individual is aware that they are dreaming during their dream
role theory of hypnosis - hypnosis is not altered state of consciousness; participants are simply meeting social demands by playing a certain role
state theory of hypnosis - based on idea that hypnosis creates altered state of consciousness and can produce dramatic effects, such as removing warts
dissociation theory - proposed by Hilgard, blends the role and state theories, proposes that hypnosis is not a specific state, but a condition in which normal though and action control is temporarily reorganized or broken up
psychoactive drugs - affect the brain, may change consciousness or other psychological processes
blood-brain barrier - a feature of blood vessels in the brain which prevent certain substances from entering tissue
agnoists - fit into and affect receptors the same way a neurotransmitter would, mimic the effects a normal neurotransmitter would create
antagonists - similar enough to neurotransmitters to take their place in receptor sites, but unable to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
psychological dependence - when person continues drug use despite undesirable effects and develops such a need for the drug that they become preoccupied with obtaining it in order to maintain sense of well-being
AP Psychology Ch5 test notes
Notes on Vision and Perception
Sensation – activity of sense organ when detecting stimulus
Intensity – physical strength of stimulus (required in order for sensation to occur)
Noise – background stimulation for any sense that takes away from the sensation of the “main” stimulus
Adaptation – with prolonged exposure, body can tune out a sense and adapt or get used to it
Signal detection theory – other psychological factors influence our experience of stimuli and perception of the world… there is more than just the physical factors affecting sensation (i.e. logic—how we think about the stimulus)
Absolute threshold – least amount of energy required for stimulus to be detected by sense at least 50% of the time
Weber’s Law – consistent numbers for JNDs à 2% weight, 20% slatiness, 10% loudness, 14% pressure, 5% smell, .3% pitch
Fechner’s Law – how much more does the intensity of a stimuli have to increase for the sensation to be twice as strong? …the stronger the sensation from the start, the harder it is or the more required for it to be twice as much
Visible light in spectrum = about 350-380nm to 760nm
Primary colors of light = red, blue, green
Light = additive, all colors together make white
Saturation – richness of color
Brightness – hue from light to dark
Negative afterimages – what is left after the firing of ganglia
Binocular vision – ability to focus on something with both eyes, increases depth
dark-adaptation – within 30 minutes
light-adaptation – within a matter of minutes
blind-spot –where the optic nerve enters the eyes, no rods/cones, no photoreceptors
monocular cue accommodation – ability of eye to focus on an object, lens tights & loosens, accommodates & converges
shape consistency – even though image on retina may change shape, image stays the same in your head
size consistency – closer objects fill more of retina, even though image on retina may change size, image remains the same in your head
color consistency – color stays consistent in head, even though the light hitting it is always changing
tempera summation – summarize everything that’s going on in your eye
active coding theory – we are constantly coding colors in our eyes; it is an active process for us to perceive color
opponent coding theory – we either see one color or its opposite
depth – ability to have images in 3-D; images hit our retina as 2-D and are processed in our frontal lobes as 3-D
interposition/occlusion – occurs when you have 1 object covering another (blocked) object, and the mind
Young-Helmhotlz / Trichromatic Theory (1800s) – color perception from retina; cones for red, green, blue; everything = combinations of three main colors; most receptors dedicated to red
Hering Hurvich / Opponent-process Theory – every color perceived in ganglia, color or opposite (i.e. blue vs yellow), after image theory
Retinex Theory – everything we see is compared to everything we’ve seen before
Human eye = inefficient, inside-out and backwards… in TV would be like having screen, wires, image
Near-sighted people have problem of image hitting too soon on retina
Color blindness – men more likely than woman, traited carried on X-chromosome; 4 out of 1000 women, 8 out of 100 men
Protanopia – red, green, yellow all look yellow
Deuteranopia – red, green, yellow all look red
Tritanopia – shorter wavelengths difficult to see, can’t see dark colors
PARTS OF EYE
Sensation – activity of sense organ when detecting stimulus
Intensity – physical strength of stimulus (required in order for sensation to occur)
Noise – background stimulation for any sense that takes away from the sensation of the “main” stimulus
Adaptation – with prolonged exposure, body can tune out a sense and adapt or get used to it
Signal detection theory – other psychological factors influence our experience of stimuli and perception of the world… there is more than just the physical factors affecting sensation (i.e. logic—how we think about the stimulus)
Absolute threshold – least amount of energy required for stimulus to be detected by sense at least 50% of the time
Weber’s Law – consistent numbers for JNDs à 2% weight, 20% slatiness, 10% loudness, 14% pressure, 5% smell, .3% pitch
Fechner’s Law – how much more does the intensity of a stimuli have to increase for the sensation to be twice as strong? …the stronger the sensation from the start, the harder it is or the more required for it to be twice as much
Visible light in spectrum = about 350-380nm to 760nm
Primary colors of light = red, blue, green
Light = additive, all colors together make white
Saturation – richness of color
Brightness – hue from light to dark
Negative afterimages – what is left after the firing of ganglia
Binocular vision – ability to focus on something with both eyes, increases depth
dark-adaptation – within 30 minutes
light-adaptation – within a matter of minutes
blind-spot –where the optic nerve enters the eyes, no rods/cones, no photoreceptors
monocular cue accommodation – ability of eye to focus on an object, lens tights & loosens, accommodates & converges
shape consistency – even though image on retina may change shape, image stays the same in your head
size consistency – closer objects fill more of retina, even though image on retina may change size, image remains the same in your head
color consistency – color stays consistent in head, even though the light hitting it is always changing
tempera summation – summarize everything that’s going on in your eye
active coding theory – we are constantly coding colors in our eyes; it is an active process for us to perceive color
opponent coding theory – we either see one color or its opposite
depth – ability to have images in 3-D; images hit our retina as 2-D and are processed in our frontal lobes as 3-D
interposition/occlusion – occurs when you have 1 object covering another (blocked) object, and the mind
Young-Helmhotlz / Trichromatic Theory (1800s) – color perception from retina; cones for red, green, blue; everything = combinations of three main colors; most receptors dedicated to red
Hering Hurvich / Opponent-process Theory – every color perceived in ganglia, color or opposite (i.e. blue vs yellow), after image theory
Retinex Theory – everything we see is compared to everything we’ve seen before
Human eye = inefficient, inside-out and backwards… in TV would be like having screen, wires, image
Near-sighted people have problem of image hitting too soon on retina
Color blindness – men more likely than woman, traited carried on X-chromosome; 4 out of 1000 women, 8 out of 100 men
Protanopia – red, green, yellow all look yellow
Deuteranopia – red, green, yellow all look red
Tritanopia – shorter wavelengths difficult to see, can’t see dark colors
PARTS OF EYE
Cornea – outer protective layer, 1st part light passes through, altered with
laser surgery
Aqueous humor – liquid between cornea and iris/pupil/lens
Iris – color part
Pupil – light regulator
Lens – focusing part of eyes (can be linked to problems with sight), beneath cornea,
can be tightened/loosened (accommodation) or moved in/out (converging)
Ciliary muscle – controls lens size
Vitreous humor – liquid inside eye cavity
Fovea – back center of retina, only has cones, last part of eye to finish developing
Retina – where light hits after traveling through lens, receives inverted image, filled by 126 million light-sensitive photoreceptors (in both eyes)
Rods – sensitive to black/white, 60 million per eye, many in nocturnal creatures, release chemical called rhodopsin when hit by light
Cones – sensitive to color, 3 million per eyes, more sensitive so less stimulation needed, released chemical opsin when hit by light
Sclera – clear-colored but opaque inner covering, protective, where dirt/grime collects and washed to eye ducts
Blind spot – where option nerve connect with eye, no photoreceptors
AP Psychology Ch5 vocab
1. The term perception refers to the process of interpreting sensation using knowledge and understanding of the world in order to create meaningful experiences.
2. The computational approach deals with solving perceptual problems through computation, as a machine would. It is believed that if machines and their methods of turning raw sensory information into a representation of reality can be understood, then so can the complex nervous systems of animals. This approach focuses on how signals are manipulated.
3. The constructiveness approach states that our perceptual systems uses fragments of sensory information in order to construct our representation of the world from fragments of sensory information. Perception influenced by expectations and inferences from prior knowledge or past experiences. Constructivist psychologists are interested in how people can perceive the same stimuli differently.
4. The ecological approach is based on the idea that perceptual experiences are mostly based on the wealth of information directly contained in a stimulus presented by the environment. Perception is believed to support actions. Psychologists who follow this approach focus on how we use sensory information to guide us.
5. Psychophysics is a method of studying perception and describing the relationship between our psychological experiences and the physical energy behind them.
6. An absolute threshold is the minimum amount of physical energy required to trigger a conscious perceptual experience at least 50% of the time.
7. A subliminal stimuli is one that falls beneath the absolute threshold and is too weak or brief to make a person conscious of their presence.
8. The signal detection theory is a mathematical model of determining factors in how people respond when attempting to detect faint stimuli. The premise of this theory is that people will experience perceptual stimulation even when the signal/stimulus is absent.
9. Noise is any perceptual stimulation that occurs other than an intended signal. It can be external (from the environment) or internal/neural (from random firing of cells on the nervous system).
10. Sensitivity is a person’s ability to discriminate correctly between a stimulus and its background. It can be influenced by the capacity of a person’s sensory systems, the intensity of the stimulus, and internal noise.
11. The response criterion reflects a person’s willingness to state when a stimulus is present, which in turn is affected by the person’s wants, needs, and expectations.
12. The difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (JND) is the minimum detectable difference in the intensity of a stimuli.
13. Fechner’s law deals with magnitude estimation, and is based on the idea that JNDs progressively increase as stimulus magnitude (perceived intensity) increases. This law applies to light and sound, among other things, but the reverse is true for shocks (perceiving feeling from electricity).
14. The likelihood principle is based upon the idea that people have a tendency to automatically perceive objects the way experience tells them is the most likely physical arrangement.
15. Perceptual constancy is the perception of objects as constant in certain properties (i.e. shape, size, color), despite changes in the retinal image produced by them.
16. In bottom-up processing, recognition is based upon specific, detailed information elements that are integrated from the sensory receptors and assembled into a whole. This phenomenon starts with basic information and uses it as a foundation for recognition.
17. Stroboscopic motion is a motion illusion that occurs due to people’s tendency to interpret still images flashed in rapid succession as continuous motion. This is the basis for our ability to see motion in movies.
18. In top-down processing, aspects of recognition begin at the top of the conceptual level, guided by expectations and knowledge among other psychological factors. This phenomenon involves higher-level information.
19. Schemas are personal beliefs.
20. Parallel distributed processing, which is used by researchers to explain recognition, involves units in a network operating parallel or simultaneously.
2. The computational approach deals with solving perceptual problems through computation, as a machine would. It is believed that if machines and their methods of turning raw sensory information into a representation of reality can be understood, then so can the complex nervous systems of animals. This approach focuses on how signals are manipulated.
3. The constructiveness approach states that our perceptual systems uses fragments of sensory information in order to construct our representation of the world from fragments of sensory information. Perception influenced by expectations and inferences from prior knowledge or past experiences. Constructivist psychologists are interested in how people can perceive the same stimuli differently.
4. The ecological approach is based on the idea that perceptual experiences are mostly based on the wealth of information directly contained in a stimulus presented by the environment. Perception is believed to support actions. Psychologists who follow this approach focus on how we use sensory information to guide us.
5. Psychophysics is a method of studying perception and describing the relationship between our psychological experiences and the physical energy behind them.
6. An absolute threshold is the minimum amount of physical energy required to trigger a conscious perceptual experience at least 50% of the time.
7. A subliminal stimuli is one that falls beneath the absolute threshold and is too weak or brief to make a person conscious of their presence.
8. The signal detection theory is a mathematical model of determining factors in how people respond when attempting to detect faint stimuli. The premise of this theory is that people will experience perceptual stimulation even when the signal/stimulus is absent.
9. Noise is any perceptual stimulation that occurs other than an intended signal. It can be external (from the environment) or internal/neural (from random firing of cells on the nervous system).
10. Sensitivity is a person’s ability to discriminate correctly between a stimulus and its background. It can be influenced by the capacity of a person’s sensory systems, the intensity of the stimulus, and internal noise.
11. The response criterion reflects a person’s willingness to state when a stimulus is present, which in turn is affected by the person’s wants, needs, and expectations.
12. The difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (JND) is the minimum detectable difference in the intensity of a stimuli.
13. Fechner’s law deals with magnitude estimation, and is based on the idea that JNDs progressively increase as stimulus magnitude (perceived intensity) increases. This law applies to light and sound, among other things, but the reverse is true for shocks (perceiving feeling from electricity).
14. The likelihood principle is based upon the idea that people have a tendency to automatically perceive objects the way experience tells them is the most likely physical arrangement.
15. Perceptual constancy is the perception of objects as constant in certain properties (i.e. shape, size, color), despite changes in the retinal image produced by them.
16. In bottom-up processing, recognition is based upon specific, detailed information elements that are integrated from the sensory receptors and assembled into a whole. This phenomenon starts with basic information and uses it as a foundation for recognition.
17. Stroboscopic motion is a motion illusion that occurs due to people’s tendency to interpret still images flashed in rapid succession as continuous motion. This is the basis for our ability to see motion in movies.
18. In top-down processing, aspects of recognition begin at the top of the conceptual level, guided by expectations and knowledge among other psychological factors. This phenomenon involves higher-level information.
19. Schemas are personal beliefs.
20. Parallel distributed processing, which is used by researchers to explain recognition, involves units in a network operating parallel or simultaneously.
AP Psychology Ch4 vocab
1. The term sense refers to a system that takes information from outside the nervous system and translates it into neural activity.
2. Accessory structures are involved in the first step in sensation and modify incoming energy.
3. Transduction, when incoming energy is converted into neural activity, is the second step in sensation.
4. Transduction occurs at sensory receptors, which are structures with specialized cells that can detect certain forms of energy.
5. Adaptation occurs over time as responsiveness to an stimuli decreases due to the fact that the stimuli remains at a constant level and there is no change in energy.
6. Coding is the translation of a stimuli’s physical properties into a pattern of neural activity that identifies those specific physical properties.
7. Temporal codes provide information about a stimulus based on changes in timing of firing, and can be as complex as slow-quick-slow firing or burst-steady-slow firing.
8. Spatial codes provide information about a stimulus based upon the location of firing neurons.
9. The basilar membrane is the floor of the fluid-filled tube that makes up the cochlea.
10. The place theory, also known as the traveling wave theory, states that hair cells are most responsive at the peak of the sound wave, and thus describes a spatial code for frequency.
11. Frequency matching is how very low frequencies which have no auditory nerve fibers that have such characteristics, can be heard: the firing rate of a neuron matches the frequency of a sound wave.
12. Accommodation refers to the ability to change the shape of the lens in order to bend light rays.
13. Acuity is the ability to see details. It is greatest in the region called the fovea, which contains a high concentration of cones.
14. Convergence is an arrangement in which photoreceptors stimulate cells when light strikes them, thus increasing each bipolar cell’s sensitivity.
15. Lateral inhibition enhances the sensation of contrast. It occurs one cell’s response to light excited or inhibits the response of a neighboring cell.
16. The trichromatic theory states that there are three visual elements which produce the sensation of color as a result of their varying sensitivity to different wavelengths of light.
17. The opponent-process theory states that visual elements sensitive to color are grouped into pairs. The membranes of these pairs oppose or inhibit each other (only one color sensation can be created by one pair).
18. Analgesia is the absence of feelings of pain as a result of brain messages that block incoming pain signals. A painful stimulus is thus less likely to produce an painful sensation.
19. Proprioceptive sensory systems are the ones that receive information from the outside world.
20. Kinestesia is the sense of where your body parts are with respect to one another (i.e. foot compared to knee).
2. Accessory structures are involved in the first step in sensation and modify incoming energy.
3. Transduction, when incoming energy is converted into neural activity, is the second step in sensation.
4. Transduction occurs at sensory receptors, which are structures with specialized cells that can detect certain forms of energy.
5. Adaptation occurs over time as responsiveness to an stimuli decreases due to the fact that the stimuli remains at a constant level and there is no change in energy.
6. Coding is the translation of a stimuli’s physical properties into a pattern of neural activity that identifies those specific physical properties.
7. Temporal codes provide information about a stimulus based on changes in timing of firing, and can be as complex as slow-quick-slow firing or burst-steady-slow firing.
8. Spatial codes provide information about a stimulus based upon the location of firing neurons.
9. The basilar membrane is the floor of the fluid-filled tube that makes up the cochlea.
10. The place theory, also known as the traveling wave theory, states that hair cells are most responsive at the peak of the sound wave, and thus describes a spatial code for frequency.
11. Frequency matching is how very low frequencies which have no auditory nerve fibers that have such characteristics, can be heard: the firing rate of a neuron matches the frequency of a sound wave.
12. Accommodation refers to the ability to change the shape of the lens in order to bend light rays.
13. Acuity is the ability to see details. It is greatest in the region called the fovea, which contains a high concentration of cones.
14. Convergence is an arrangement in which photoreceptors stimulate cells when light strikes them, thus increasing each bipolar cell’s sensitivity.
15. Lateral inhibition enhances the sensation of contrast. It occurs one cell’s response to light excited or inhibits the response of a neighboring cell.
16. The trichromatic theory states that there are three visual elements which produce the sensation of color as a result of their varying sensitivity to different wavelengths of light.
17. The opponent-process theory states that visual elements sensitive to color are grouped into pairs. The membranes of these pairs oppose or inhibit each other (only one color sensation can be created by one pair).
18. Analgesia is the absence of feelings of pain as a result of brain messages that block incoming pain signals. A painful stimulus is thus less likely to produce an painful sensation.
19. Proprioceptive sensory systems are the ones that receive information from the outside world.
20. Kinestesia is the sense of where your body parts are with respect to one another (i.e. foot compared to knee).
Tuesday, December 4, 2007
AP Psychology Jung notes
Jungian Dream Interpretation
Jung believed all of our dream help us understand our true self better. The four steps you take are as follows-
1- Little Dreams vs. Big Dream: Jung believed little dream are recollections of the day focusing on areas where we weren't being true to ourselves, we were not being the best we could be. Big Dreams are critical to our future, when we are dreaming things to shed light on the person we want to become (our IDEAL self according to Jung). These insight dreams give us guidance during critical phases of our life and help us to become more genuine in our future plans and endeavors.
2- Synchronicity: This describes how our dreams can predict events in our waking life- de ja vu dreams and how our dreams can reflect events which have already occurred in our waking life. The synchronicity is that our dream life is in sync with our waking life. Do your dream predict events OR do they reflect events which have already happened?
3- Compensatory theory: We compensate in our dream for what we lack in our waking lives. When we fall short of our IDEAL self, we dream that we succeed. We compensate for short coming in our dreams. Do your dreams reveal how you'd really like your life to be?
4-Amplification: Objects, people and events in our dreams can represent more than they appear on the surface. Brainstorm each object , person, or event and think about how these objects, people and events serve to help reveal aspects of your true self, your wants and desires.
Our dreams reveal our true self. Images come from our personal unconscious and collective unconscious (a universal, innate realm that is common in all people) and appear in our dreams to help us explore our true nature. Stock character, as Jung refers to them, archetypes, help reveal to us how we can better reach our ideal self.
AP Psychology Ch3 test notes
*ESSAY ANSWER FROM 2007 INCLUDED
amygdala – memories, fear, EMOTIONS
cerebellum – coordination, absorbs alcohol
hippocampus- memory formation
hypothalamus – sex, hunger, thirst drives; cirrcadian rhythms
reticular formation – arousal, attention, damaged = coma
thalamus – relays sensory info
supra chiasmatic nuclei – govern biological rhythms
brain = 2% body wgt, takes in 20% oxygen
Alzheimer’s – chloinergic neuron damage, too little acetylcholine, damaged limbic system & cerebral cortex
Parkinson’s – damage to dopaminergic neurons & basal ganglia
1. input (sensory signals from world)
2. processing (integration of info)
3. output (act on information)
neuron – rapid response to signals, send own signals; long, thin fibers extending out from body
axon = signal AWAY from body (generally one axon w/ many branches)
dendrite = signal TO body from other cells
synapse = gap btwn neurons
glial – “glue”, help neurons function/communication (direct their growth, keep chem environ stable, restore damage)
INSIDE AXON
- inside of cell more negative than outside
- electrochemical potential keeps + molec towards inside of cell
- sodium channels normally closed
- depolarization à threshold à sodium channels open
- more depolarization, more channels open
- electrochemical potential spreads down axon
- action potential = abrupt change in potential
- self propagating property = activity cascade
- action potential shoots down axon/dendrite = neuron is “fired” (all or nothing)
- larger diameter of axon = faster action potential
myelin = fatty substance around axons, speeds action potential (i.e. danger receptors)
multiple sclerosis = virus similar to myelin, body attacks, destors myelin à problems with vision, speech, balance, etc
refractory period = rest between firings, gates for K+ (potassium) open and ions flow out, membrane repolarizes
ESSAY
The autonomic part of the peripheal nervous system (PNS, parts of nervous system not including brain and spinal cord) reacts to danger with the flight/fight response (deal or run) through catabolic processes of the sympathetic nervous system, which gear the body up for the emergency. First, the thamalus, which can be seen as the processing part of the brain, sends out a signal to the hypothalamus that there is danger. The thalamus is what interprets a situation as fight or flight. The hypothalamus must then decide how much of an emergency it is. It is the “thermostat” of the body, calculating how much hormone the body needs to produce for the situation. In this way the nervous system works with the endocrine system, released hormones and chemicals into the body to help it gear up and react to an emergency.
The pituitary receives a signal from the hypothalamus to begin make hormones, and releases ACTH into the bloodstream. This hormone goes to the adrenal glands, causing them to pump out adrenaline. Adrenaline helps speed the body up by targeting certain organs, such as the heart and lungs. Adrenaline causes the heart to race and for the bronchi to constrict (causing rapid breathing).
The hormones also affect nerve cells. After entering a neuron, a hormone is called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters must fit like a lock and key into the receptor site on the neuron’s dendrite, or else it won’t work. A change in charge from positive to negative must occur in the neuron for it to reach its action potential and fire. A neuron fires all or nothing. Once it has fires, it becomes depolarized.
This process will repeat until the thalamus perceives that the situtation is no longer dangerous. The parasympathetic part of the PNS slows the body down once it realizes that the perceived emergency is either not actually an emergency, or that the danger has passed. The hypothalamus sends a message out that no more ACTH is needed and instead causes the pituitary gland to pump out Ach. This causes the adrenal glands to stop making adrenaline. The body then slowly returns to a normal, non-excited state.
While this is occuring, the somatic nervous system can consciously gear the body up through sympathetic process that may involve anything from voluntarily tensing muscles to jumping up and down. The somatic nervous system can also work through parasympathetic processes, slowing the body down, causing it to relax through an action as simple as taking deep breaths.
The ultimate goal of all this is to maintain homeostasis. It is important that the body be responsive to stimuli, but at the same time not be wasteful of resources (i.e. food/fuel, chemicals/hormones)
AP Psychology Ch3 vocab
Chapter 3 Vocabulary
1. Neurotransmitters, chemicals stored in vesicles at the tips of axons, transfer information between neurons (across a synapse). They work by attaching to receptor proteins on the membrane of a postsnyptic cell.
2. An excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) involves the depolarization of a membrane through the inward flow of positively charged ions (i.e. sodium or calcium). The cations, which make the neuron slightly less polarized and change the membrane potential, make the firing of action potential more likely.
3. Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) involves the outward flow is positively charged ions (i.e. potassium) or the inward flow of negatively charged ions. This flow causes polarization in the neuron to increase. Hyperpolarized neurons are less likely to fire action potentials.
4. A refractory period is the rest period between neuron firings. During this period, potassium ion (positively charged) gates open and ions flow out, enabling the membrane to repolarize.
5. Nuclei are groups of neuronal cell bodies.
6. A reflex is an automatic action or behavior in response to an incoming signal that results in an immediate reaction.
7. The spinal cord continues into what is known as the hindbrain, the area that incoming signal first reach.
8. The medulla is part of the hindbrain, and controls important automatic functions such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.
9. The reticular (“netlike”) formation, a collection of cells that threads through the hindbrain and midbrain, alters the resting activity of the brain. Arousal and attention are controlled by this area. If damaged in an individual, the individual will go into a coma.
10. The locus coeruleus (“blue spot”) is a small nucleus located inside the reticular formation. It is believed that this part of the brain is involved in attention and, is damaged, depression.
11. The hindbrain also consists of the cerebellum, which controls repetitive/known and finely coordinated movements (i.e. playing piano, doing ballet, sports; or needle threading )
12. The midbrain is a small structure above the hindbrain that controls some automatic behavior and sensory processing.
13. The substantia nigra (“black substance”) is a small but vital nucleus in the midbrain that deals with smooth intiation of movement.
14. The straitum (“striped”) works with the substantia nigra to control movement initiation and make it smooth.
15. The forebrain covers most of the brain and controls most of the complex parts of behavior and mental processes. The forebrain has two parts: the cerebrum and the diencephalon. It is covered by the cerebral cortex.
16. The thalamus, part of the diencephalon, relays sensory information from various organs and the spinal chord to the brain. It is also responsible for information processing.
17. The hypothalamus, located under the thalamus, regulates sex, hunger, and thirst drives. It is connected to the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.
18. The suprachiamatic nuclei is part of the hypothalamus. This part of the brain is the body’s [approximately] twenty-four hour clock that dictates biological thythms.
19. The cerebrum is the largest part of the forebrain and contains both the amygdala and the hippocampus.
20. The amygdala is the part of the brain that can take two different stimuli from two different sense and associate them (i.e. shape + feel = object). It also deals with emotions such as fear, and can be responsible for posttraumatic stress disorder.
21. The hippocampus deals with the formation of new memories.
22. The cerebral cortex (large in humans, larger in dolphins) is believed to analyze sensory information, control voluntary motion, and process higher-order thoughts, among other complex cognitive activities
23. The sensory cortex is in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes of the brain, and is part of the cerebral cortex. Sensory information received by this cortex is sent to various areas according to the type of information—visual, auditory, etc.
24. The motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe and control voluntary motion. Different parts of this cortex control movement in different parts of the body. The motor cortex mirrors the somatosensory cortex (movement of part of body vs. information from part of the body).
25. The association cortex does not receive sensory information or intiate motion. Instead, it controls higher cognitive tasks.
26. The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to coordinate and operate together. It is responsible for transferring information between the two sides of the brain.
27. The term “lateralized” is given to a task that is performed more efficiently by one hemisphere of the brain than another.
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
28. The first neurotransmitter to be identified was acetylcholine, which is used in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous sytem (CNS). It influences movement and memory. Too little acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
29. Adrenergic neurons use norepinephrine, aka noradrenaline. Norepinephrine exists in both the PNS and CNS and is involved in arousal. In the sympathetic nervous system, this neurotransmitter activates an individual to prepare them for action. Wakefulness, sleep, learning, and mood also involve norepinephrine. More than 50% of these neurotransmitters are near the reticular formation, in the locus coeruleus. Low levels of this neurotransmitter may lead to depression?
30. Serotonin is generally used by cells along the midline of the hindbrain, called the raphe nuclei, but also affects the forebrain. Serotonin influences mood and sleep. Diet can affect serotonin levels as one of the precursors for serotonin, tryptophan, is food in certain foods. Aggression and impulse control may be related to serotonin levels. Depressed, suicidal individuals often have low levels of this neurotransmitter.
31. Dopamine levels influence movement and higher cognitive activities. Low levels are often seen in individuals with schizophrenia or Parkinson’s disease.
32. An inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA affects anxiety. Low levels of GABA are often seen people with Huntington’s disease or individuals who suffer from epilepsy.
33. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that influences memory and learning. Excess amounts may, however, lead to the death of neurons.
34. Endophins are neurotransmitters that bind to the same receptors that opiates bind to. Endorphins are believed to modulate pain and possibly produce euphoria.
35. The fight-or-flight response occurs when a situation is interpreted as threatening by the brain. ACTH is released by the pituitary and cortisol is released by the adrenal glands. Heart rate increase, glucose is released by the liver into the bloodstream, fuel is taken from fat scores, and an organism enters a state of high arousal.
36. The immune system is a surveillance and sensory system that keeps watch on the body’s internal state. It detects foreign, unwanted, or toxic substances and then engulfs or destroys them.
37. Autoimmune disorders are the result of the immune system going too far in its job to protect the body. In these disease, the immune system will attack the healthy cells in the body.
1. Neurotransmitters, chemicals stored in vesicles at the tips of axons, transfer information between neurons (across a synapse). They work by attaching to receptor proteins on the membrane of a postsnyptic cell.
2. An excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) involves the depolarization of a membrane through the inward flow of positively charged ions (i.e. sodium or calcium). The cations, which make the neuron slightly less polarized and change the membrane potential, make the firing of action potential more likely.
3. Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) involves the outward flow is positively charged ions (i.e. potassium) or the inward flow of negatively charged ions. This flow causes polarization in the neuron to increase. Hyperpolarized neurons are less likely to fire action potentials.
4. A refractory period is the rest period between neuron firings. During this period, potassium ion (positively charged) gates open and ions flow out, enabling the membrane to repolarize.
5. Nuclei are groups of neuronal cell bodies.
6. A reflex is an automatic action or behavior in response to an incoming signal that results in an immediate reaction.
7. The spinal cord continues into what is known as the hindbrain, the area that incoming signal first reach.
8. The medulla is part of the hindbrain, and controls important automatic functions such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.
9. The reticular (“netlike”) formation, a collection of cells that threads through the hindbrain and midbrain, alters the resting activity of the brain. Arousal and attention are controlled by this area. If damaged in an individual, the individual will go into a coma.
10. The locus coeruleus (“blue spot”) is a small nucleus located inside the reticular formation. It is believed that this part of the brain is involved in attention and, is damaged, depression.
11. The hindbrain also consists of the cerebellum, which controls repetitive/known and finely coordinated movements (i.e. playing piano, doing ballet, sports; or needle threading )
12. The midbrain is a small structure above the hindbrain that controls some automatic behavior and sensory processing.
13. The substantia nigra (“black substance”) is a small but vital nucleus in the midbrain that deals with smooth intiation of movement.
14. The straitum (“striped”) works with the substantia nigra to control movement initiation and make it smooth.
15. The forebrain covers most of the brain and controls most of the complex parts of behavior and mental processes. The forebrain has two parts: the cerebrum and the diencephalon. It is covered by the cerebral cortex.
16. The thalamus, part of the diencephalon, relays sensory information from various organs and the spinal chord to the brain. It is also responsible for information processing.
17. The hypothalamus, located under the thalamus, regulates sex, hunger, and thirst drives. It is connected to the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system.
18. The suprachiamatic nuclei is part of the hypothalamus. This part of the brain is the body’s [approximately] twenty-four hour clock that dictates biological thythms.
19. The cerebrum is the largest part of the forebrain and contains both the amygdala and the hippocampus.
20. The amygdala is the part of the brain that can take two different stimuli from two different sense and associate them (i.e. shape + feel = object). It also deals with emotions such as fear, and can be responsible for posttraumatic stress disorder.
21. The hippocampus deals with the formation of new memories.
22. The cerebral cortex (large in humans, larger in dolphins) is believed to analyze sensory information, control voluntary motion, and process higher-order thoughts, among other complex cognitive activities
23. The sensory cortex is in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes of the brain, and is part of the cerebral cortex. Sensory information received by this cortex is sent to various areas according to the type of information—visual, auditory, etc.
24. The motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe and control voluntary motion. Different parts of this cortex control movement in different parts of the body. The motor cortex mirrors the somatosensory cortex (movement of part of body vs. information from part of the body).
25. The association cortex does not receive sensory information or intiate motion. Instead, it controls higher cognitive tasks.
26. The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to coordinate and operate together. It is responsible for transferring information between the two sides of the brain.
27. The term “lateralized” is given to a task that is performed more efficiently by one hemisphere of the brain than another.
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
28. The first neurotransmitter to be identified was acetylcholine, which is used in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous sytem (CNS). It influences movement and memory. Too little acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
29. Adrenergic neurons use norepinephrine, aka noradrenaline. Norepinephrine exists in both the PNS and CNS and is involved in arousal. In the sympathetic nervous system, this neurotransmitter activates an individual to prepare them for action. Wakefulness, sleep, learning, and mood also involve norepinephrine. More than 50% of these neurotransmitters are near the reticular formation, in the locus coeruleus. Low levels of this neurotransmitter may lead to depression?
30. Serotonin is generally used by cells along the midline of the hindbrain, called the raphe nuclei, but also affects the forebrain. Serotonin influences mood and sleep. Diet can affect serotonin levels as one of the precursors for serotonin, tryptophan, is food in certain foods. Aggression and impulse control may be related to serotonin levels. Depressed, suicidal individuals often have low levels of this neurotransmitter.
31. Dopamine levels influence movement and higher cognitive activities. Low levels are often seen in individuals with schizophrenia or Parkinson’s disease.
32. An inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA affects anxiety. Low levels of GABA are often seen people with Huntington’s disease or individuals who suffer from epilepsy.
33. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that influences memory and learning. Excess amounts may, however, lead to the death of neurons.
34. Endophins are neurotransmitters that bind to the same receptors that opiates bind to. Endorphins are believed to modulate pain and possibly produce euphoria.
35. The fight-or-flight response occurs when a situation is interpreted as threatening by the brain. ACTH is released by the pituitary and cortisol is released by the adrenal glands. Heart rate increase, glucose is released by the liver into the bloodstream, fuel is taken from fat scores, and an organism enters a state of high arousal.
36. The immune system is a surveillance and sensory system that keeps watch on the body’s internal state. It detects foreign, unwanted, or toxic substances and then engulfs or destroys them.
37. Autoimmune disorders are the result of the immune system going too far in its job to protect the body. In these disease, the immune system will attack the healthy cells in the body.
AP Psychology Ch2 vocab with brief notes
Chapter 2
- believe what comes from a credible source
- critical thinking = process of assessing claims, making judgments based on evidence
o accept what?
o supporting evidence?
o ways of interpreting evidence?
o additional evidence?
o reasonable conclusions?
1. A hypothesis is a specific testable belief stated in precise terms. Because hypotheses must be experimentable, they must be stated in one direction.
2. Operational definitions are working definitions in an experiment that everyone can agree upon. They describe exact operations or methods used to manipulate or measure variables.
3. A naturalistic observation is an observation made without interference as it occurs in a natural setting.
4. An independent variable is controlled/manipulated by the experimenter and is what is being tested. All other variables should remain consistent throughout the course of the experiment.
5. A dependent variable is a change in behavior that results from changing the independent variable. The dependent variable is measured or observed.
6. Random assignment is a procedure designed to create equivalent groups through randomization. It is supposed to equally distribute uncontrolled variables and thus minimize the odds that such variables will distort that data.
7. A confounding variable, also called an extraneous variable, is anything that has a negative impact on experiment (the dependent variable) but wasn’t accounted for or measured in the experiment.
8. A quasi-experiment approximates the control of a true experiment but doesn’t randomly assign its participants to treatment groups. The conclusions from these experiment are consequently not as strong as true experiments, but are useful because they enable scientists to conduct research that in other conditions would not be possible.
9. An experimental group receives the independent variable or the treatment. They are the group that is being tested upon.
10. A control group does not receive any treatment or receives a treatment that is not the focus of the experiment. Control groups are used to compare experimental groups against.
11. Experimenter bias is a potentially confounding variable. Experimenters may inadvertently exert their expectations or beliefs upon results and thus affect them.
12. A placebo is a “fake” treatment which involves nothing that is known to be helpful, but may produce positive or beneficial results due a person’s belief in it. Placebos are often used in drug studies as the control against which real drugs can be compared.
13. A correlation coefficient, which is sometimes given by the symbol r, describes the strength of a correlation. It varies from –1 to +1. The absolute value of r shows how strong the relationship is (higher number means stronger relationship). The sign of r indicates if the relationship is a positive of negative correlation.
14. In a data set, the difference between the highest scores and the lowest scores is called the range.
15. The mode of a set of data is the value that occurs the most frequently.
16. A median is the middle data point in a set of numbers; fifty percent of the data exists above it and fifty percent exists below it. In the set [1, 1, 2, 6, 9], 2 is the media because it is the middle data point.
17. A mean is an average value. It is calculated by adding at the values together and then dividing by the number of values.
18. Something is statistically significant when chance alone cannot account for the correlation coefficient or the difference between the means of two groups. If something is statistically significant, the numbers are meaningful in determining relationships.
19. A standard deviation (also SD) measures the average difference between each data value and the mean of the data set. A higher standard deviation means a greater difference between the scores of a data set (more variability within the set). A lower SD means the scores are closer together.
20. Double-blind design is used to prevent experimenter bias from affecting an experiment. In double-blind experiments, neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who is receiving a placebo or what results are expected from the treatment.
21. A random sample is a group of participants that was created such that all individuals in the population had equal chances of being selected.
AP Psychology Ch1 Test notes
using Berstein, Carke-Stewart, Penner, Roy, Wickens fifth edition Psychology textbook
*sorry the formatting got weird!
Sciences
1) Physics (movement)
2) Chemistry (creation)
3) Biology (life)
4) Psychology (mind)
5) Sociology (society)
6) Anthropology (people)
Philosophy
Plato (428-348 BC)
- Socrates’ student
- world divided into matter (physical) and form (spirit)
- FORM more important
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
- MATTER more important
Aquinas (1225-1274 BC)
- BOTH matter (body) and form (mind)... not sure how they work together
Descartes (1596-1650)
- dualist à mind and body interact
- “I think, therefore I am” (Cognito ergo sum)
Bain (1818-1903)
- no causality or relationship between mind and body
Russell (1872-1970)
- can’t assume dependence of mind on body or vice versa
- independent?
- impossible to prove existence of matter, can’t perceive anything in its total absolute form
Goals of Psychology à PEC!
1) predict
2) explain
3) control
Fundamental Factors of Behavior à MOCC!
1) motivation
2) organism
3) competence
4) cognition
Hippocrates’ Fluids
- blood
o hopeful, optimistic, lively, sanguine
o too much à hyper
- phlem (mucus)
o too much = phlematic à calm
- black bile (unsure, feces?)
o too much à depressed, melancholic
- yellow bile (unsure, vomit? urine?)
o too much à irritable, edgey, choleric
Sheldon’s Sandbox Theory
- ectomorph
o tall, lanky skinny, frail
o restrained, quiet, introverted, nervous, loner
- mesomorph
o muscular, medium sized
o courageous, energetic, assertive, action seeking
- endomorph
o round, soft, chubby
o relaxed, social, love to eat, happy, loving
VOCAB
Ø psyche – mind, not physical
Ø logos – logic
Ø phrenology – bumps on head/shape of school affect personality
Ø Fechner à psychophysics, physical parts of reality, structuralist
Ø Ernest Weber à JND à just notice a little (2%) difference
Ø systematic desensitization = biological treatment... use it and get used to it
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Ø structuralism
§ physical part of cognition, issues w/ conscious
§ introspection – Wundt’s way of observing conscious experience
§ Titchner
Ø functionalism
§ impossible to know all parts of conscious, focus on how it works
§ Darwin – conscious ability to adapt
§ William James – stream of consciousness, how people adapt to environment
§ John Dewy – applying way mind functions to education, learn what we want when we want
Ø Gestalt
§ more than sum of parts, not just body or mind... deals withperception
§ Wertheimer
§ phenomenology – no absolute reality
§ Kurt Lewin – understand people by understanding their environment
§ Kohler – moments of insight, not taught, just discovered
Ø Behaviorism
§ minds and body functioning result of environmental influence
§ never in control of one’s actions
§ Watson & Skinner
Essay
1) BEHAVIORALOur responses to stimuli and the causes of our behavior lie in environmental influence. According to Skinner, our environment can reward us for certain actions with pleasure and can punish us for other actions. Over time we make the association and do less of the thing that results in punishment, and more of the thing that results in rewards
§ PAVLOV, classical conditioning = association
§ WATSON, observable behavior = all that matters is what you see
§ SKINNER, operant conditioning = bodies & minds learn consciously by consequence
· stop when ignored
· continue when reinforced
2) PSYCHOBIOLOGICALA chemical imbalance, or according to Darwin, a genetic predisposition to behavior
§ Lenneberg = people programmed to certain things
3) COGNITIVEOur mental sets—the way we normally thinks and what we normally do—is what causes our behavior. Romanes = the way we think has evolved
§ Wiener = cyberneticks
§ Chomsky = rules are innate
· schemas à beliefs
· stereotypes – beliefs based on lack of experience/knowledge, overgeneralization
· confirmation bias – schema supported at least once, initial belief later contradicted, but still held on to
§ assimilation – APPLY
§ accommodation – ADAPT
§ representativeness heuristic – generalization made not from personal experience
§ availability heuristic – assumptions from personal experience
§ framing – leading q’s
4) PSYCHOANALYTICThe inner turmoil within causes us to act the way we do. We have primitive urges and drives (i.e. Eros, the sexual drive) that are unconscious. According to Freud, this part of us is called our Id, and it is the selfish part
§ technique to get a unconscious, buried & rational beliefs = psychoanalysis
§ dream analysis, hypnosis, word association
§ unconscious ID, preconscious, conscious
5) HUMANISTICOur thoughts and feelings in the moment cause us the act the way we do. According to Maslow, if we are not yet self actualized or fully developed we may act in “incorrect” way, but in reality, people are basically good.
§ reality is the way you see it
§ anxious people, afraid of death, need reason to live
§ ROGERS, congruent = real & ideal self are same, you are person you want to befully functioning, using 100% of abilitiespositive regard = accepted as you areconditions of worth = feel like acceptance is based on being someone elsefree will = we choose how we think/feel
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)