AP Psychology Ch12 Test notes/essay

Development Unit Essay

COMPARE AND CONTRAST ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (8 stages) WITH FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (6 stages)

Both Freud and Erikson’s theories on development have stages that match up age and principal behaviors established. Freud, however, believed that in each stage we have a libidinal focus, while Erikson believed we go through stages based on our social interactions. Freud’s stages also stop after age 12, whereas Erikson’s continue throughout life and don’t end until we die.

Both Freud and Erikson’s first stages deal with trust as the principal behavior established. Freud focused on the mouth and believed that people in this stage get their arousal orally, generally through breastfeeding. Freud believed that in moments of stress or hardship, we may regress back to earlier stages. This can be seen when six year olds children get frightened and suck on their thumb, or when an teenager has a hard day and goes out for 3 Whoopers. Erikson’s first stage is trust vs. mistrust and deals with having our needs met (“I am what I am given”). If we our needs are met (i.e. hungry, get fed; cold, get blanket), we develop into trusting individuals. If we don’t have needs our met, we feel worthless and fail to develop trust and may be suspicious of people later in life, even if we have strong bonds with them. Erikson believed that people who were given too much early on—for example, they had parents that would give them food before they even felt hungry—will become gullible and overly trusting people.

Both Freud and Erikson’s second stages deal with competency as the principal behavior established. Freud believed that in this stage we get our arousal anally, especially people in this stage are generally being potty trained. The potty training results in either gained feelings or control or a feeling of lack of control. According to Freud, if someone were to have difficulty with this stage—or any other stage—they may become fixated or stuck. Anally fixated people fall under two catergories: those who are anal expulsive are very messy because they believe they have no control over their lives, and those who are anal retentive, who are extremely neat perfectionists who desperately seek control over everything in their lives. People can also anally regressed and become very neat in times of stress (i.e. when a student cleans his room before a big exam, instead of studying). Erikson’s second stage deals with autonomy vs doubt (“I am what I will”). We develop into independent people if our parents allowed us to fail. If a child’s parents were constantly doing everything for them then they always feel like they are not good enough or not competent enough, and will learn to doubt themselves.

Two of Freud’s stages actually match up with the principal behavior established in Erikson’s third stage. The first of Freud’s stages involves phallic self-stimulation (3rd stage) and learning about one’s body and what feels good. The seconds of Freud’s stages involves Oedipal/Electra complexes (4th stage), in which children focus on their opposite sex parent. Boys become attracted to their mothers and fear their fathers because they think their fathers will castrate them. Girls become attracted to their fathers and begin to think women are not as important as men because men have penises. Girls develop penis envy (which Freud claimed girls never get over) and think that the only thing they can have in place of a penis is a baby. Thus, the principal behavior established is the learning of gender roles. Erikson’s third stage involves initiative vs guilt (“I am what I imagine”). Children either take the initiative to dream big and reach for the stars, or feel guilty for trying things because their parents do not support them or show approval. Children learn to feel shame.

Both Freud and Erikson’s next stages focus on learning as the principal behavior established. For Freud, the fifth stage is a latent stage, which involves no libidinal focus because children believe sex is “yucky” due to the guilt they feel after working through their complexes in the previous stage. Thus, this stage simply involves focusing on school and education. According to Freud, this is when children develop morality and learn things such as shame and disgust. Erikson’s parallel is his fourth stage, industry vs inferiority. Industry involves learning and feeling smart. Inferiority is felt by those in low groups (i.e. the “slower” readers or the “easy” math group) who are held back. The key phrase is “I am what I can learn.”

Then, Erikson’s theory has a fifth stage, for which Freud does not truly have a parallel. Erikson’s stage involves identity vs role confusion. During this period, individuals try to discover who they are and work through issues involving time, sexual polarization, and self confidence, among other things.

Freud’s last stage corresponds with the principal behaviors established in Erikson’s sixth stage. Freud’s stage involves genetalia as the libidinal focus, only unlike the phallic and complex stages, this time individuals want others (not parents) to stimulate them. In this stage, people learn to establish relationships. Erikson’s parallel stage involves intimacy versus isolation. We develop relationships with others in this stage, and must consider whether we want to get married and commit ourselves to someone else.

While Freud didn’t believe that development extended beyond his genitalia stage, Erikson still had two more stages, the seventh stage being generativity vs self absorption, in which we learn to become involved in the community. People who are on the generativity side contribute to the world around them, whereas those who are self absorbed only live in the small space that they occupy and do not add to the community around them. The stage in Erikson’s theory is integrity vs despair, in which a person must deal with accepting their life and eventual death. People will integrity will look back and see all the wonderful things they did. They will see accomplishments and will believe their life was meaningful. People who despair reflect on their life only to see failure and missed opportunities. They reflect on what they should have done or could have done better.

AP Psychology Theories on Development

Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development

1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)


Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK

AP Biology Plant Kingdom Notes

More Plant Kingdom Notes

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
- eukaryotic, autotrophic, photosynthetic
o chloroplasts
o chlorophyll a, b
o carotenoids
- multicellular (evolved from chlorophyta/green algae)
- non motile
- cell wall of cellulose (different from bacteria and fungi)
- food reserve stored as starch

Problems w/ Life on Land
- water loss
- gas exchange
- gravitational pull

Terrestrial Changes (distinguished plants from algae)
- structural adaptations
o complex bodies w/ cell specialization for diff functions
o stomata: balances gas exchange and dehydration
o cuticle: waxy secretion, cover surface, prevents dessication
- chemical adaptations
o lignin: rigidifies cellulose into wood, holds plant upright against gravity, maximizes leaf exposure to sun
- reproductive adaptations
o embryotic reproduction
o embryo retained and protected w/in parent à won’t dry out
o allows for gamete dispersion/fertilization without water

Charophyceans
- green algae
- closest relative of land plants
o 4 key shared characteristics w/ plants
§ rose-shaped (rosette) complex for cellulose synthesis
§ structure of flagellated sperm
§ formation of a phragmoplast
§ peroxisome enzymes
o nuclear and chloroplast gene shown close relations
§ sequenced DNA = very similar
§ in chloroplast, layer of durable polymer called sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
o 5 not shared traits (in plants, but not charophyceans)
§ apical meristems
§ walled spores produced in sporangia
§ multicellular dependent embryos
§ alternation of generations
§ multicellular gametangia

Vascular Plants
1. structural support
a. rigid structure needed to stand upright
b. cellulose and lignin fortify plant
2. regional specialization of plant body
a. water and light segregated in terrestrial habitat (water=roots & light=plant top)
b. root, aerial shoots, stem, leaves evolve
c. but this specialization leads to problem of transportation
3. vascular system
a. moves substances btwn roots/leaves
b. xylem
i. conducts water and minerals from root to leaves
ii. dead at functional maturity
c. phloem
i. transports food down plants
ii. distributes amino acids, sugars
iii. live at functional maturity
iv. arranged in tubules
4. pollen
a. contains male gametophytes (which will produce sex gametes)
b. eliminates need for water for sexual reproduction
5. seeds
a. diploid next generation sporophytes (product of archegonium, female organ)
6. increased dominance of diploid sporophyte
a. branching sporophytes of vascular plants amplifies production of spores
b. more complex bodies becomes possible

Seedless Vascular Plants
3 divisions
- lycophytes (lycophyta)
o club moss, ground pines
o mostly homosporous
- horsetails (sphenophyta)
o have photosynthetic, free-living gametophytes not dependent on sporophyte for food


Seed Vascular Plants


Reproductive adaptations
1. gametophytes of seed plants become more reduced in size (compared to the seedless vascular plants) and are retained within moist reproductive tissue of the sporophyte, unlike seedless plant gametophytes, which are independent
2. seeds replace spores as main means of dispersing offspring
harsh terrestrial environment required resistant structure for dispersal
bryophytes & seed(less?) vascular plants release hard spores
seed = more hardy due to multicellularity
seed contains sporophyte embryo, food supply, surrounding protective coat
all seed plants = heterosporous (have mega and micro sporangia)
seed develops into megasporangia
3. pollen became vehicle for sperm cells in seedplants
microspores due to pollen grains which mature to male gametophyte
coated w/ polymer sporopollenin
carried by wind/animals following release

GYMNOSPERMS = lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop à open seed

needle-shaped leaves = adapted to dry conditions
v thick cuticle
v stomata are in pits reducing water loss
v despite its different shape, it has megaphylls like all SP leaves

LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE
v sporophyte dominate
v sporangia located on cones
v multicellular sporophyte reduced, develops from haploid spores retained in sporangia
v male gametophyte consists of multicell nutritious tissue
v archegonium developes w/in ovule
v heterosporous
v takes nearly 3 yrs to complete life cycle

Angiosperms -> flowering plants
division – Anthophyta, 2 classes: monocotyledones & dicotyledones
a) mostly use insects and animals to increase efficiency of pollenation
b) terrestrial adaptation refined vascular tissue
c) conifers have Tracheids (sp?)
i. water conducting cells, early xylem
ii. elongated, tapered à function in both support and water movement
d) have vessel elements
i. shorter and wider
ii. arranged end to end forming continuous tubes
iii. more specialized for conducting water
e) reinforced by fibers
i. specialized for support
ii. thick lignified wall
iii. fibers evolved in conifers *some conifers have fibers & tracheids but not vessel elements

Flower -> defining reproduction adaptation
- compressed shoot w/ four whorls of _____ leaves
- parts of flower in 30.6 in Campbell
4 Evolutionary Trends
# of floral parts have become reduced
floral parts become fused
symmetry has changed from radial to bilateral
ovary drooped below petals and sepals à better protected

Life Cycle -> highly refined version of all
- heterosporous
- microsporangia in anthers produce microspores à form female gametophytes
- immature male gametophyte = pollen grains
- 2 haploid nuclei participate in double fertilization

Characteristics of Angiosperms
- female gametophyte
o don’t produce archegonium
o located in ovule
o consist of an embryo sac w/ 8 haploid nuclei in 7 cells
o large central ___ has 2 nuclei
o 1 cell is egg

Seed = Mature Ovule
1. embryo – develops from zygote w/ embryonic root and either 1 (monocot) or 2 (dicot) cotoyledons on seed leaves
2. endosperm – the triploid nucleus in embryo sac divides repeatedly forming ___ endosperm rich in starch à food reserves
3. seed coat

AP Biology Ch25, 26, 27 notes

Plants Notes

*taxonomy - in plant and fungi, phylums are called “divisions”

phylogeny = evolutionary history of species

SYSTEMATICS
- phylogeny and taxonomy
- classification reflects evolutionary affinities of species
- constantly changing
- fossil record serves are most evidence

fossils
- very rare -> record = spotty, incomplete
- only hard things like shells—nothing soft/fleshy... must be near water & sediment
- DATING
- relative = based on strata holding the fossils (oldest strata and fossils on the bottom)
- absolute = radiometric - unstable isotope with known half life can be tested for, i.e. Carbon-14

continental drift = as continents move, environments change... natural selection acts forces changes in species as they slowly adapt to their environment

massive extinctions create new adaptive zones by freeing up environmental niches and allowing for rapid adaptive radiation à major adaptations? insect wings (allows for new zones), shells (defense)

taxa should be monophyletic = SINGLE ancestor gives rise to all species in taxon

POLYPHYLETIC = members do not all share common ancestor

paraphyletic = taxon grouping consists of ancestor, but not all descendents (only some)

homology -> descent from common ancestor (shared phylogenetic history) can lead to morphological (i.e. bone structure) and molecular similarities (genes/DNA)
- shared primitive character = general, trait beyond the taxon being defined (i.e. horses and humans have hair, doesn’t mean their related because whales also have hair)
- shared derived character = unique, evolutionary novelty... distinct to clade, useful in establishing a phylogeny
analogy -> similarity due to convergent evolution (i.e. bat wing and bird wing function)
to construct phylogeny, differentiating between HOMOLOGY and ANALOGY is very important
homoplasies = analogous structures that evolved independently
branching sequences in phylogeny show time of evolution or divergence

cladogram = patterns of shared characteristics, doesn’t show evolutionary history or timing, merely chronological sequencing ->lade = group of species w/in tree, includes ancestors & descendents
ultrameric tree shows time
phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis

Outgroup comparison
- differentiates btwn derived or primitive characters
- important step in cladistic analysis
- ingroup = species studies which display mix of shared primitive and shared derived characters outgroup = the species closely related to the species being studied, but less so than any in the ingroup

Orthologous genes - widespread, found in diff gene pools due to speciation (i.e. ß hemoglobin genes found in both humans & mice)... all living things share certain biochem/developmental pathwaysParalogous genes - result from gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome (i.e. olfactory receptor genes)