self concept
This component of self involves the beliefs people hold about who they are, as well as what characteristics they have.
reference groups
Festinger’s theory of social comparison states that people assess their own value based on those around them. This terms refers to the people to whom you feel are similar to you that serve as your basis of comparison.
relative deprivation
This phenomenon is produced when individuals feel their status is unfavorable compared to that of others. It is the belief that no matter how much a person gets, they deserve more.
social identity
This term refers to a person’s beliefs about the groups they belong to (nationally, religiously, etc.); it is a large part of their self concept.
self-schema
This term refers to a person’s mental representation of himself, which may shape that individual’s thoughts, experiences, and emotions.
self-fulfilling prophecy
This process occurs when a person does something that causes others to confirm that person’s impressions or beliefs or when schemas cause people to inadvertently lead people to behave according to our expectations.
attribution
This term deserves the process people go through to explain the causes of behaviors, both their own and that of others. This process helps us to understand and predict later actions, as well as try to control situations.
fundamental attribution error
This term describes people’s tendency to overattribute others’ behaviors to internal factors (i.e. their personality), instead of external factors (i.e. stress).
actor-observer bias
This term describe people’s tendency to attribute their own behavior to external causes, even while attributing the behavior of others to internal causes, due to the different kinds of information they have about the behavior of themselves versus the behavior of others. This phenomenon is especially common inappropriate or inadequate behavior is concerned.
self-serving bias
This term describes the tendency people have to take personal credit for success (internal cause), while blaming failures on external causes.
attitude
This tendency to act, feel, or think negatively or positively towards things in our environment is a part of social cognition that has been studied for an extremely long time. This tendency guides how we react to others, what we do, what we support, and so on. There are three components: cognitive (beliefs), affective/emotional (feelings), and behavioral (actions).
cognitive dissonance theory
This theory states that people want their attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts to be consistent with each another and with the individual’s behavior. When inconsistencies are noticed, people feel anxious and attempt to reduce the dissonance—often by changing attitudes rather than behaviors.
self-perception theory
This theory challenges the cognitive dissonance theory. It states that individuals often find themselves unsure about their attitudes, and thus must reflect on their behaviors under certain circumstances and then infer what their attitude should be. There is no tension in this process.
contact hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that prejudices and stereotypes towards certain people will diminish as contact with the people increases.
matching hypothesis
This belief is based on the idea that individuals have a tendency to date, marry, or form relationships with people of the same level of physical attractiveness. People compromise because they are afraid of rejection from those with physical appeal greater than their own.
norms
This term refers to learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should or shouldn’t do in certain situations. We inherit them from our teacher, parents, and peers. They describe what is expected of people and help make social situations less ambiguous and more comfortable.
deindividuation
This psychological state occurs when a person—often a member of a group—loses his sense of individuality. This loss heightens feelings of cohesiveness with his group and increases emotional arousal. The focus of attention on membership in the group and the values of group serves to reduce a sense of personal responsibility by creating a feeling of anonymity, and also shifts attention away from internal thoughts to external environment.
empathy-altruism theory
This beliefs states that the likelihood of people engaging in unselfish helping acts (altruism) will do so even when the cost is high when they feel empathetic toward the person in need.
social loafing
This terms describes how people have a tendency to not work as hard when in a group, as it is difficult to identity an individual’s contributions. Individuals often exert more effort when performing alone.
conformity
This terms describes when a person changes their beliefs or behavior to match those around them. It is the result of group pressure.
compliance
This terms describes when people adjust their behavior after requested to do so. Explicit requests are spoken or directly indicated. Implicit requests are unspoken but understood.
frustrating-aggression hypothesis
Originally developed by John Dollard, this idea states that frustration always results in aggression, and that aggression will not occur unless someone is frustrated. This hypothesis, however, is said to be too simply and general.
prisoner’s dilemma game
This situation occurs when two criminals are separated after a crime. They have the choice of confessing or remaining silent. If neither confess, they will mostly likely be jailed for only 1 year for a minor offense. If both confess, they are likely to get a 5 year sentence. However, if one confesses and the other does not, the one that confessed will be released while the non-confessor will be jailed for up to 10 years. Responses can be cooperative or competitive. It is a mixed-motive conflict.
altruism
This term describes an unselfish concern for another’s welfare. It is a helping behavior.
arousal: cost-reward theory
This belief states that people find the sight of a victim anxiety-provoking and distressing. Their emotions motivate them to reduce their unpleasant arousal, namely the victim’s situation.
As physiological arousal of bystanders increases, so does the likelihood of them offering assistance.
group think
This phenomenon occurs when members of a group are not able to completely or realistically evaluate the potential negative consequences of a decision or the options open to them. Three conditions increase the likelihood of this to occur: isolation from outside influence, time pressure or extremely stress, biased leadership.
zero-sum games
This terms describes situations in which conflict is extremely likely. In these cases, the gains of one person is subtracted from another person’s resources; the sum of losses and gains is zero.
Thursday, May 8, 2008
Thursday, May 1, 2008
AP Psychology Ch16 vocab
CHAPTER 16 - Treatment and Therapy
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
Psychoanalysis
This method of treatment was developed by Sigmund Freud, and focuses on the affect of the ego (a referee between superego and id) and unconscious conflicts on a client. Freud examined the relationship between a person’s history and their current problems, and searched for hidden meanings in people’s dreams and actions.
Client-Centered Therapy
This treatment method is part of the phenomenological approach. It focuses on how therapists needs to establish relationships with their clients through the use of positive regard, empathy, and congruence. In this method, a client decides when to talk about whatever they want without being directed, judged, or interpreted by the therapist. The client solves his own problem with little advice from his therapist.
Unconditioned Positive Regard
This attitude involves treating a client as valued person, no matter what. Therapists should listen to their clients and accept their statements without interrupting or judging.
Empathy
This attitude involves appreciation of how the world looks from client’s perspective. Therapists must look at the client with an internal frame of reference and try to gain an emotional understanding of client’s thoughts and feelings.
Reflection
This feature of client-centered therapy helps a patient focus the thoughts and feelings they are expressing by confirming communication between the patient and therapist. The therapist confirms communication by paraphrasing his patient’s words, their meaning, and their emotions.
Congruence
This attitude is also known as “genuineness,” and involves consistency between a therapist’s feelings and actions.
Gestalt Therapy
This method, developed by Frederick S. Perls and his wife Laura, is direct and dramatic. It tries to help people grow by making them more self accepting, self aware, and unified. Clients are prodded towards certain feelings and impulses. Incongruities between what a person says and does are pointed out.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
This type of behavioral treatment focuses on changing thinking patterns as well as behaviors.
Systematic Desensitization
This method of modifying behavior (specifically phobias and anxieties) involves visualizing the negative stimuli while remaining relaxed in order to unlearn the learned association between the stimuli and the negative response.
Modeling
In this technique, therapists teach their clients certain behaviors by demonstrating them themselves. Skills are learned by the client vicariously.
Token Economy
This technique of positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors with items (tokens) that can later be exchanged for actual rewards (i.e. a cookie).
Extinction
This technique involves operant conditioning and is a process of removing reinforcers to make undesired behaviors stop.
Flooding
This method of behavior therapy keeps people in feared but harmless situations, depriving them of their normal escape patterns. Slowly, their negative response diminishes and eventually is extinguished.
Aversive Conditioning
This classical conditioning technique involves turning habitual but undesirable behaviors into less attractive options so that a client will be less likely to perform the behaviors.
Rational Emotive therapy
This form of cognitive behavior therapy is based upon the idea that depression, guilt, anxiety, etc. are caused by people’s thoughts and interpretations of events. Individuals must learn to recognize self-defeating thoughts and replace them with beneficial ones.
Neuroleptics
This psychoactive drug, also called an antipsychotic, helps decrease symptoms of several mental disorders, including incoherence, paranoia, and hallucinations. Phenothiazines are the most common type.
Antidepressants
This drug helps individuals with mood disorders by helping them resume normal eating and sleeping habits as well as improving their disposition.
Anxiolytics
This drug helps individuals with anxiety disorders by reducing mental and physical tension (symptoms of anxiety).
AP Psychology Ch15 vocab, test notes
Psychological Disorders
Culture-general disorders - appear almost worldwide, but symptoms differ according to cultural backgrounds.
Culture-specific disorders – observed in only certain areas and are unique to certain cultures.
Diathesis-stress model - focuses on biological imbalances, inherited traits, brain damage, enduring psychological traits, and early learning experiences (biopsychosocial causes) that may create a predisposition for a psychological disorder; appearance of a disorder depends on stressors encountered by individual… when stress levels exceed coping capacity, panic response is triggered and psychological disorders may arise
Positive symptoms: unwanted additions to a person’s mental life... include distortions or exaggerated behavioral, perceptual, or cognitive functioning (i.e. delusions or hallucinations)
Negative symptoms: take away from elements of normal mental life; decrease or cause a loss of normal functioning... [ex: flat affect (restricted emotional expression), alogia (lack of speech)]
Personality disorder - long-standing, inflexible patterns of behavior, affects all areas of functioning
10 types: paranoid, schizoid (detached, restricted emotions), schizotypal (detached, odd perceptions/thoughts/ behaviors), dependent, obsessive-compulsive, avoidant, histrionic (overly dramatic, shallow, desire to be center of attention), narcissistic, borderline (unstable, impulsive, angry, suicidal), antisocial
General anxiety disorder – aka free-floating anxiety, involves non-specific, excessive, and long-lasting anxiety; individuals feel worried, jumpy, and irritable, believing disaster is imminent
Abnormal behavior
-not psychologically healthy, prevent effective everyday functioning
-socially unacceptable
-faulty reality perception
-self defeating, causes personal destress
Historical treatment of the insane
-prehistoric: supernatural, valued
-Greek/Roman: God’s way, embraced mental problems, bodies different?, kind treatment
-Middle Ages: Satan made people that way, torture
-Colonial Times: “witches” often OCD
Criterion for Abnormal/Normal Behavior
statistical: anything seen only in small % of popu
concensual: whatever society dictates is normal is normal (general population’s beliefs)
functioning: if a person can function, they are normal
personal: how you feel about your situation
Models of Psychological Disorders
Biomedical: something physically wrong, i.e. chemical imbalances, genetics, endocrine system problems
Psychoanalytic: repressed past problems, unconscious conflict
Cognitive: faulty constructs, your perspective causes problems
Behavioral: learned to be sick to get rewards/attention
Sociological: has to do w/ social class and social stress (poor working class = lowest #)
Categorizing disorders
psychological – in the mind
systemic – disease/disorder
traumatic – environment or life experience
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
DSM: 1962, 60 disorders
DSM II: 1968, original found not adequate, 2 categories created: neurotic (stress) & psychotic (imbalances)
DSM III: 1980, 150 disorders, based on what doctors saw in patients, neurotic/psychotic categories thrown out (not enough), homosexuality removed as disoder
DSM III-R: 1987, 250 disorders, 17 categories
DSM IV: 1994, close to 500 disorders, based on patient symptoms directly
axis
1. major clinical symptoms, basic disorders
2. personality/development disorders
3. physical problems
4. stress level in past year
5. independence
ESSAY
Create a case history for each of the disorders on the test. Make sure to describe the cause, type of onset, symptoms, behaviors, and treatments
Conversion Hysteria/Disorder: loss of physical functions w/o physical cause
onset – immediate
cause – traumatic
treatment – psychoanalysis
**type of somatoform disorder; occurs when an individual appears to be blind, deaf, paralyzed, or insensitive to pain when they are not; symptoms tend to appear with severe stress; individuals show surprisingly little concern over condition
Bipolar Disorder: manic & depressive states
onset – gradual
cause – genetic and biochemical (monoamide oxide)
treatment – neuroleptics (antipsychotics), lithium
*characterized by the appearance of 2 alternating emotional extremes: depression & mania
Mania describes an extremely elated, energetic, impulsive, reckless, agitated emotional state
Seasonal Affective Disorder: mood shifts with season, depression, weight gain
onset – gradual, episodic
cause – environmental
treatment – antidepressants, light therapy
Schizoprenia: hallucinations & delusions
1) paranoid – delusions of grandeur 2) catatonic – stupor/frozen to excited states
3) hebephrenic/disorganized – childish, word salads,
onset – can be gradual, reaction/immediate, or just happen upon adulthood
cause – organic brain disease, genetic, imbalance of dopamine
treatment – neuroleptics, pherothiazines
Paranoid Reaction: no hallucinations, delusional, lack insight
1) state: trauma and acute 2) true: always been a little off
onset – organized, gradual
cause – biochemical
treatment – neuroleptics, phenothiazines
OCD: thoughts that won’t go away & repetitive ritualistic behaviors that serve no purpose
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – antibodies for strep, chemical imbalance of serotonin
treatment – SSRI antidepressants, systematic desensitization, lobotomy (rare)
Panic Attacks: heart palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, difficulty breathing, episodic w/o cause or warning
onset – immediate, reactive?
cause – unequal blood flow to right side of brain, genetic?
treatment – drug therapy (Xanax), antidepressants, lobotomy
Post Traumatic Stress Disorders: flashbacks, nightmares
onset – reactive, immediate
cause – repression surrounding traumatic event
treatment – SSRI’s, psychoanalysis, EMDR
Phobias: unreasonable fears
onset –gradual or immediate
cause – trauma, associated with panic attacks
treatment – MAO inhibitors, systematic desensitization
Dissociative Disorders
1) amnesia: memory loss 2) fugue: memory loss plus flight, end up somewhere else 3) identity disorder: alters splitting from core personality 4) depersonalization: lose control of body
onset –gradual or acute
cause – repression, childhood abuse, trauma
treatment – psychoanalysis
Monday, March 10, 2008
AP Psychology Ch12 Test notes/essay
Development Unit Essay
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (8 stages) WITH FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (6 stages)
Both Freud and Erikson’s theories on development have stages that match up age and principal behaviors established. Freud, however, believed that in each stage we have a libidinal focus, while Erikson believed we go through stages based on our social interactions. Freud’s stages also stop after age 12, whereas Erikson’s continue throughout life and don’t end until we die.
Both Freud and Erikson’s first stages deal with trust as the principal behavior established. Freud focused on the mouth and believed that people in this stage get their arousal orally, generally through breastfeeding. Freud believed that in moments of stress or hardship, we may regress back to earlier stages. This can be seen when six year olds children get frightened and suck on their thumb, or when an teenager has a hard day and goes out for 3 Whoopers. Erikson’s first stage is trust vs. mistrust and deals with having our needs met (“I am what I am given”). If we our needs are met (i.e. hungry, get fed; cold, get blanket), we develop into trusting individuals. If we don’t have needs our met, we feel worthless and fail to develop trust and may be suspicious of people later in life, even if we have strong bonds with them. Erikson believed that people who were given too much early on—for example, they had parents that would give them food before they even felt hungry—will become gullible and overly trusting people.
Both Freud and Erikson’s second stages deal with competency as the principal behavior established. Freud believed that in this stage we get our arousal anally, especially people in this stage are generally being potty trained. The potty training results in either gained feelings or control or a feeling of lack of control. According to Freud, if someone were to have difficulty with this stage—or any other stage—they may become fixated or stuck. Anally fixated people fall under two catergories: those who are anal expulsive are very messy because they believe they have no control over their lives, and those who are anal retentive, who are extremely neat perfectionists who desperately seek control over everything in their lives. People can also anally regressed and become very neat in times of stress (i.e. when a student cleans his room before a big exam, instead of studying). Erikson’s second stage deals with autonomy vs doubt (“I am what I will”). We develop into independent people if our parents allowed us to fail. If a child’s parents were constantly doing everything for them then they always feel like they are not good enough or not competent enough, and will learn to doubt themselves.
Two of Freud’s stages actually match up with the principal behavior established in Erikson’s third stage. The first of Freud’s stages involves phallic self-stimulation (3rd stage) and learning about one’s body and what feels good. The seconds of Freud’s stages involves Oedipal/Electra complexes (4th stage), in which children focus on their opposite sex parent. Boys become attracted to their mothers and fear their fathers because they think their fathers will castrate them. Girls become attracted to their fathers and begin to think women are not as important as men because men have penises. Girls develop penis envy (which Freud claimed girls never get over) and think that the only thing they can have in place of a penis is a baby. Thus, the principal behavior established is the learning of gender roles. Erikson’s third stage involves initiative vs guilt (“I am what I imagine”). Children either take the initiative to dream big and reach for the stars, or feel guilty for trying things because their parents do not support them or show approval. Children learn to feel shame.
Both Freud and Erikson’s next stages focus on learning as the principal behavior established. For Freud, the fifth stage is a latent stage, which involves no libidinal focus because children believe sex is “yucky” due to the guilt they feel after working through their complexes in the previous stage. Thus, this stage simply involves focusing on school and education. According to Freud, this is when children develop morality and learn things such as shame and disgust. Erikson’s parallel is his fourth stage, industry vs inferiority. Industry involves learning and feeling smart. Inferiority is felt by those in low groups (i.e. the “slower” readers or the “easy” math group) who are held back. The key phrase is “I am what I can learn.”
Then, Erikson’s theory has a fifth stage, for which Freud does not truly have a parallel. Erikson’s stage involves identity vs role confusion. During this period, individuals try to discover who they are and work through issues involving time, sexual polarization, and self confidence, among other things.
Freud’s last stage corresponds with the principal behaviors established in Erikson’s sixth stage. Freud’s stage involves genetalia as the libidinal focus, only unlike the phallic and complex stages, this time individuals want others (not parents) to stimulate them. In this stage, people learn to establish relationships. Erikson’s parallel stage involves intimacy versus isolation. We develop relationships with others in this stage, and must consider whether we want to get married and commit ourselves to someone else.
While Freud didn’t believe that development extended beyond his genitalia stage, Erikson still had two more stages, the seventh stage being generativity vs self absorption, in which we learn to become involved in the community. People who are on the generativity side contribute to the world around them, whereas those who are self absorbed only live in the small space that they occupy and do not add to the community around them. The stage in Erikson’s theory is integrity vs despair, in which a person must deal with accepting their life and eventual death. People will integrity will look back and see all the wonderful things they did. They will see accomplishments and will believe their life was meaningful. People who despair reflect on their life only to see failure and missed opportunities. They reflect on what they should have done or could have done better.
AP Psychology Theories on Development
Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
1) Sensorimotor Stage – thinking confined to what is sensed physically, struggle with object permanence (mastery leads to separation anxiety)
2) Preoperational Stage – very egocentric, learn that symbols represent objects, struggle with conversation and reversibility (looking at things in 1-D instead of 2-D, “do you have a sister?” “does your sister have a sister?”), confuse reality with fantasy
3) Concrete Operational Stage – fully grasp conservation, reversibility, and absolutes; struggle with abstract concepts and hypotheticals
4) Formal Operational Stage – master abstract thinking, struggle with understanding things from another perspective (putting self into someone else’s shoes)
* little acronym: SPiCe F (the F is random, but the "spice" part really helped me)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
*amoral before 4 years old
PRECONVENTIONAL
1) Might Makes Right – morality based on consequences; if caught, wrong
a. preoperational
b. egocentric
2) Marketplace Morality –do the right thing if it is beneficial to self, “what will I get out of it?”
CONVENTIONAL
3) Good Girl/Good Boy – total conformity, morality is what everyone does, go with crowd
a. early teens
b. may last a lifetime
4) Law and Order – law is the law, must follow rules, can’t always get what we want
POSTCONVENTIONAL
5) Common Good – majority can be wrong, change the system by working within it, “what will benefit most people?”
6) Ethical Principals – certain things are true regardless of laws, may need to change things to help everyone, MLK
Monday, March 3, 2008
AP Biology Plant Kingdom Notes
More Plant Kingdom Notes
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
- eukaryotic, autotrophic, photosynthetic
o chloroplasts
o chlorophyll a, b
o carotenoids
- multicellular (evolved from chlorophyta/green algae)
- non motile
- cell wall of cellulose (different from bacteria and fungi)
- food reserve stored as starch
Problems w/ Life on Land
- water loss
- gas exchange
- gravitational pull
Terrestrial Changes (distinguished plants from algae)
- structural adaptations
o complex bodies w/ cell specialization for diff functions
o stomata: balances gas exchange and dehydration
o cuticle: waxy secretion, cover surface, prevents dessication
- chemical adaptations
o lignin: rigidifies cellulose into wood, holds plant upright against gravity, maximizes leaf exposure to sun
- reproductive adaptations
o embryotic reproduction
o embryo retained and protected w/in parent à won’t dry out
o allows for gamete dispersion/fertilization without water
Charophyceans
- green algae
- closest relative of land plants
o 4 key shared characteristics w/ plants
§ rose-shaped (rosette) complex for cellulose synthesis
§ structure of flagellated sperm
§ formation of a phragmoplast
§ peroxisome enzymes
o nuclear and chloroplast gene shown close relations
§ sequenced DNA = very similar
§ in chloroplast, layer of durable polymer called sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
o 5 not shared traits (in plants, but not charophyceans)
§ apical meristems
§ walled spores produced in sporangia
§ multicellular dependent embryos
§ alternation of generations
§ multicellular gametangia
Vascular Plants
1. structural support
a. rigid structure needed to stand upright
b. cellulose and lignin fortify plant
2. regional specialization of plant body
a. water and light segregated in terrestrial habitat (water=roots & light=plant top)
b. root, aerial shoots, stem, leaves evolve
c. but this specialization leads to problem of transportation
3. vascular system
a. moves substances btwn roots/leaves
b. xylem
i. conducts water and minerals from root to leaves
ii. dead at functional maturity
c. phloem
i. transports food down plants
ii. distributes amino acids, sugars
iii. live at functional maturity
iv. arranged in tubules
4. pollen
a. contains male gametophytes (which will produce sex gametes)
b. eliminates need for water for sexual reproduction
5. seeds
a. diploid next generation sporophytes (product of archegonium, female organ)
6. increased dominance of diploid sporophyte
a. branching sporophytes of vascular plants amplifies production of spores
b. more complex bodies becomes possible
Seedless Vascular Plants
3 divisions
- lycophytes (lycophyta)
o club moss, ground pines
o mostly homosporous
- horsetails (sphenophyta)
o have photosynthetic, free-living gametophytes not dependent on sporophyte for food
Seed Vascular Plants
Reproductive adaptations
1. gametophytes of seed plants become more reduced in size (compared to the seedless vascular plants) and are retained within moist reproductive tissue of the sporophyte, unlike seedless plant gametophytes, which are independent
2. seeds replace spores as main means of dispersing offspring
harsh terrestrial environment required resistant structure for dispersal
bryophytes & seed(less?) vascular plants release hard spores
seed = more hardy due to multicellularity
seed contains sporophyte embryo, food supply, surrounding protective coat
all seed plants = heterosporous (have mega and micro sporangia)
seed develops into megasporangia
3. pollen became vehicle for sperm cells in seedplants
microspores due to pollen grains which mature to male gametophyte
coated w/ polymer sporopollenin
carried by wind/animals following release
GYMNOSPERMS = lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop à open seed
needle-shaped leaves = adapted to dry conditions
v thick cuticle
v stomata are in pits reducing water loss
v despite its different shape, it has megaphylls like all SP leaves
LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE
v sporophyte dominate
v sporangia located on cones
v multicellular sporophyte reduced, develops from haploid spores retained in sporangia
v male gametophyte consists of multicell nutritious tissue
v archegonium developes w/in ovule
v heterosporous
v takes nearly 3 yrs to complete life cycle
Angiosperms -> flowering plants
division – Anthophyta, 2 classes: monocotyledones & dicotyledones
a) mostly use insects and animals to increase efficiency of pollenation
b) terrestrial adaptation refined vascular tissue
c) conifers have Tracheids (sp?)
i. water conducting cells, early xylem
ii. elongated, tapered à function in both support and water movement
d) have vessel elements
i. shorter and wider
ii. arranged end to end forming continuous tubes
iii. more specialized for conducting water
e) reinforced by fibers
i. specialized for support
ii. thick lignified wall
iii. fibers evolved in conifers *some conifers have fibers & tracheids but not vessel elements
Flower -> defining reproduction adaptation
- compressed shoot w/ four whorls of _____ leaves
- parts of flower in 30.6 in Campbell
4 Evolutionary Trends
# of floral parts have become reduced
floral parts become fused
symmetry has changed from radial to bilateral
ovary drooped below petals and sepals à better protected
Life Cycle -> highly refined version of all
- heterosporous
- microsporangia in anthers produce microspores à form female gametophytes
- immature male gametophyte = pollen grains
- 2 haploid nuclei participate in double fertilization
Characteristics of Angiosperms
- female gametophyte
o don’t produce archegonium
o located in ovule
o consist of an embryo sac w/ 8 haploid nuclei in 7 cells
o large central ___ has 2 nuclei
o 1 cell is egg
Seed = Mature Ovule
1. embryo – develops from zygote w/ embryonic root and either 1 (monocot) or 2 (dicot) cotoyledons on seed leaves
2. endosperm – the triploid nucleus in embryo sac divides repeatedly forming ___ endosperm rich in starch à food reserves
3. seed coat
AP Biology Ch25, 26, 27 notes
Plants Notes
*taxonomy - in plant and fungi, phylums are called “divisions”
phylogeny = evolutionary history of species
SYSTEMATICS
- phylogeny and taxonomy
- classification reflects evolutionary affinities of species
- constantly changing
- fossil record serves are most evidence
fossils
- very rare -> record = spotty, incomplete
- only hard things like shells—nothing soft/fleshy... must be near water & sediment
- DATING
- relative = based on strata holding the fossils (oldest strata and fossils on the bottom)
- absolute = radiometric - unstable isotope with known half life can be tested for, i.e. Carbon-14
continental drift = as continents move, environments change... natural selection acts forces changes in species as they slowly adapt to their environment
massive extinctions create new adaptive zones by freeing up environmental niches and allowing for rapid adaptive radiation à major adaptations? insect wings (allows for new zones), shells (defense)
taxa should be monophyletic = SINGLE ancestor gives rise to all species in taxon
POLYPHYLETIC = members do not all share common ancestor
paraphyletic = taxon grouping consists of ancestor, but not all descendents (only some)
homology -> descent from common ancestor (shared phylogenetic history) can lead to morphological (i.e. bone structure) and molecular similarities (genes/DNA)
- shared primitive character = general, trait beyond the taxon being defined (i.e. horses and humans have hair, doesn’t mean their related because whales also have hair)
- shared derived character = unique, evolutionary novelty... distinct to clade, useful in establishing a phylogeny
analogy -> similarity due to convergent evolution (i.e. bat wing and bird wing function)
to construct phylogeny, differentiating between HOMOLOGY and ANALOGY is very important
homoplasies = analogous structures that evolved independently
branching sequences in phylogeny show time of evolution or divergence
cladogram = patterns of shared characteristics, doesn’t show evolutionary history or timing, merely chronological sequencing ->lade = group of species w/in tree, includes ancestors & descendents
ultrameric tree shows time
phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis
Outgroup comparison
- differentiates btwn derived or primitive characters
- important step in cladistic analysis
- ingroup = species studies which display mix of shared primitive and shared derived characters outgroup = the species closely related to the species being studied, but less so than any in the ingroup
Orthologous genes - widespread, found in diff gene pools due to speciation (i.e. ß hemoglobin genes found in both humans & mice)... all living things share certain biochem/developmental pathwaysParalogous genes - result from gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome (i.e. olfactory receptor genes)
*taxonomy - in plant and fungi, phylums are called “divisions”
phylogeny = evolutionary history of species
SYSTEMATICS
- phylogeny and taxonomy
- classification reflects evolutionary affinities of species
- constantly changing
- fossil record serves are most evidence
fossils
- very rare -> record = spotty, incomplete
- only hard things like shells—nothing soft/fleshy... must be near water & sediment
- DATING
- relative = based on strata holding the fossils (oldest strata and fossils on the bottom)
- absolute = radiometric - unstable isotope with known half life can be tested for, i.e. Carbon-14
continental drift = as continents move, environments change... natural selection acts forces changes in species as they slowly adapt to their environment
massive extinctions create new adaptive zones by freeing up environmental niches and allowing for rapid adaptive radiation à major adaptations? insect wings (allows for new zones), shells (defense)
taxa should be monophyletic = SINGLE ancestor gives rise to all species in taxon
POLYPHYLETIC = members do not all share common ancestor
paraphyletic = taxon grouping consists of ancestor, but not all descendents (only some)
homology -> descent from common ancestor (shared phylogenetic history) can lead to morphological (i.e. bone structure) and molecular similarities (genes/DNA)
- shared primitive character = general, trait beyond the taxon being defined (i.e. horses and humans have hair, doesn’t mean their related because whales also have hair)
- shared derived character = unique, evolutionary novelty... distinct to clade, useful in establishing a phylogeny
analogy -> similarity due to convergent evolution (i.e. bat wing and bird wing function)
to construct phylogeny, differentiating between HOMOLOGY and ANALOGY is very important
homoplasies = analogous structures that evolved independently
branching sequences in phylogeny show time of evolution or divergence
cladogram = patterns of shared characteristics, doesn’t show evolutionary history or timing, merely chronological sequencing ->lade = group of species w/in tree, includes ancestors & descendents
ultrameric tree shows time
phylogenetic tree represents a hypothesis
Outgroup comparison
- differentiates btwn derived or primitive characters
- important step in cladistic analysis
- ingroup = species studies which display mix of shared primitive and shared derived characters outgroup = the species closely related to the species being studied, but less so than any in the ingroup
Orthologous genes - widespread, found in diff gene pools due to speciation (i.e. ß hemoglobin genes found in both humans & mice)... all living things share certain biochem/developmental pathwaysParalogous genes - result from gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome (i.e. olfactory receptor genes)
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