AP Psychology Ch6 vocab with brief notes

Chapter 6 Vocabulary

learning – when experience modifies pre-existing behavior/understanding; simplest form = learning about individual stimuli
two major kinds
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning

Habituation = two interacting processes
A process: fixed, automatic, emotional, unlearned reponse
B process: slower reaction, triggered by onset of A and counteracts its effects (compensate and decrease)

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = stimulus that elicit response without conditioning --> unconditioned response (UCR) = unlearned reaction
conditioned stimulus (CS) = new stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (CR) = response it comes to elicit

Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus create a similar conditioned response, although to a lesser degree. The more similar the new stimulus to the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response.

Operant conditioning = same as instrumental conditioning, except with emphasis on organism learning response through operating on environment; behavior changed through consequences
operant – response that has effect on world, operates on environment (i.e. child tells parents he is hungry and thus influences appearance of food)
reinforcer – increases probability that operant behavior will occur again
positive = strengthen response when pleasant or positive stimulus occurs after behavior
negative = strengthen response through removal/termination of something unpleasant after behavior

learned helplessness – tendency to give up any effort to control the environment
latent learning – not evident when it first occurs
cognitive map – mental representation of particular spatial arrangement

1. Habituation is a form of learning that occurs when our responsiveness to unchanging stimuli over time decreases as a result of our adapting to that stimuli.

2. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of associative learning, when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response, until the formerly neutral stimulus evokes a similar response to the reflex without the reflex triggering stimulus.

3. Extinction is when a conditioned response gradually over time disappears when the unconditioned stimulus (which originally triggered an automatic response without conditioning) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (which originally triggered only a neutral reaction or none at all).

4. If, after the conditioned response has disappeared or become extinct, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired again, reconditioning occurs, and the conditioned response will return to its original strength very quickly after a short period of time (less then the original conditioning).

5. Spontaneous recovery is when an extinguished conditioned response will temporarily occur again when the conditioned stimulus is present, even though the unconditioned stimulus is absent. This reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction does not require further conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pairings. In fact, the longer the time between the extinction of the conditioned response and the re-presentation of the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the recovered conditioned response generally is.

6. Stimulus discrimination is when organisms differentiate among similar stimuli, so that not all stimuli will result in a conditioned response through stimulus generalization.

7. Second-order conditioning is when a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditional (natural) stimulus and creates a conditioned stimuli out of associated events.

8. The Law of Effect states that a response will be more likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus if that that response was previously followed by satisfaction or reward when that same stimulus was present. Conversely, responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again in the presence of that stimuli.

9. Instrumental Conditioning is the type of learning in which certain responses are strengthened and more likely to occur in the future because those response are instrumental in producing rewards.

10. Positive Reinforcement works like a reward, and is when a response is strengthened or increased because pleasant or positive stimuli occurs after certain behavior. The behavior will thus be repeated because it causes desirable outcomes.

11. Negative Reinforcement occurs when unpleasant stimuli are removed or terminated upon a certain response or behavior, and thus strengthen the likelihood that such behavior will be repeated in the future.

12. Escape Conditioning occurs when an organism learns to respond a certain way in order to end or terminate an aversive stimulus or negative reinforcer.

13. Avoidance Conditioning is when an organism makes a connection between a certain stimulus and an event that is linked with that stimulus. When the stimulus occurs or becomes present, the organism thus reacts or respond to the signal so as to avoid or prevent the exposure to a certain aversive event. This conditioning is a mix of both classical and operant conditioning because it involves both a conditioned stimulus (pairing signal with unwanted event) and the reinforcement through consequences.

14. Punishment works in the opposite manner of positive and negative reinforcement by decreasing the likelihood that behavior will occur by following a certain operant behavior with an aversive or unpleasant stimulus or deprivation of a pleasant stimulus (penalty).

15. Discriminative stimuli are stimuli that signal whether reinforcement (reward) is available if a certain response is made. They allow organisms to learn what is appropriate in certain situations and inappropriate in others, as the organisms learn to make particular responses in the presence of one stimulus but not another.

16. Shaping reinforcement of behavior through successive approximations. Reinforcement drives the responses closer to the desired response, through steps.

17. Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding events or stimuli. They may cause problems, however, because if the reinforcement is something like food, over time it will become less powerful, because hunger and desire for the food will diminish. Time will also be lost to consumption. Thus, previously neutral stimuli called secondary reinforcers are used. Secondary reinforcers (aka conditioned reinforcers) are paired with naturally reinforcing stimuli and then become reward-like in themselves and are learned to be liked.

18. Vicarious Conditioning is a type of observational learning when seeing or hearing the consequences of others’ behavior influences one’s own behavior.

19. Operant Conditioning is similar to instrumental conditioning, except that it emphasize how an organism learns to responses certain ways through operating on its environment. Behavior changed through consequences.

20. Observational Learning occurs through watching others, and is efficient and adaptive way of learning socially. Children are generally very easily influenced by adults and peers who they see as models for “appropriate behavior.”

French Prompt on French vs. American Universities

La Vie Universitaire – Parlons-en!



       Le système universitaire aux Etats-Unis est très different que le système française. Quands les étudiants viennent s’inscrire, ils vont à leur bureau des conseillers. Les conseillers aident les étudiants à établir leurs emploi du temps. Aux Etats-Unis, quand on est inscrit, c’est pour le semestre. Les étudiants peuvent lui parler des classes et des programmes, ensuite, les conseillers vais lui aider à prendre des décisions sur le plan de cours. Les conseillers ont des dossiers, des grands horaires (grades, transcripts), mais tout se fait pas ordinateur. Les étudiants ne doivent que remplir les formalités.

       Dans l’université americain, il y a des cours obligatoires pour tout les élèves. Ces cours sont généraux, comme l’anglais et l’histoire, mais il y a aussi des cours pour préparer une carrière, comme la biologie ou le calcul.

       Le système dépend des devoirs, des contrôle connaissances, et des examens. Les élèves doivent surive ses cours régulièrement, faire ses devoirs, et subir d’épreuves périodiques. Il y a aussi des examnes partiels et des grands examens au fin de ces cours.

AP Biology Ch22 Objectives

Ch 22 – Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

The Historical Context for Evolutionary Theory
1. Darwin’s belief in evolutionary change was based upon the mechanism of natural selection. Natural selection is when a population changes over time due to the fact that individuals with more desirable traits are better equip to produce more offspring and thus pass on their genes. Consequentially, over time, an accumulation of inherited characteristics allow a species to adapt, making organisms more fit for survival and reproduction (in their environment).

2. Evolution is defined as the changes in genetic composition of a population over time. It can refer to biological diversity (for example, in terms of appearance). Adaptation is the increased ability or a population to survive and reproduce in its environment as a result of accumulated inherited traits.

3. Aristotle, an early Greek philosopher, proposed the scala naturae—a ladder of increasing complexity upon which all organisms could be organized, with a permanent species on each rung. Because Aristotle did not believe in evolution, his set up did not allow for organisms to adapt or change.
Carolus Linnaeus, a physician and botanist from Sweden, came up with another method of organization, which is called taxonomy. This system classifies species into increasingly complex categories and names them based on these groups. The genus and species create the binomial “label.” Similar species are arranged in increasingly general categories. Linnaeus believed that similarities between species showed the pattern of their creation.

4. Georges Cuvier, a French paleontologist/anatomist, promoted the idea of catastrophism, that species could be destroyed by natural disasters and thus create boundaries between strata. These stripped lands would be repopulated by species from unaffected areas.
Scottish geologist James Hutton proposed the theory of gradualism, which states that profound geological changes take place through the cumulative effects of slow, continuous processes identical to those currently going on.
Geologist Charles Lyell came up with uniformitarianism, the idea that geological processes have not changed throughout Earth’s history.

5. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, a French biologist, believed that the mechanisms for evolutionary change were use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics. He based these two principles upon observations he made on the fossil invertebrate collection at Paris’s Natural History Museum, where he compared current species to the fossils. While doing so, Lamarck found what appeared to be several lines of descent from older to younger fossils, which eventually led to a modern species.
Use and disuse is the idea that essential parts of an organism that are constantly used become larger and stronger, while unnecessary parts deteriorate. Inheritance of acquired characteristics states that offspring can inherit modifications from their parents that were acquired during their lifetime. Lamarck believed that the innate drive of organisms to increasingly complexity causes evolutionary change. However, modern genetics has shown that acquired characteristics cannot be passed on.

The Darwinian Revolution
6. Darwin’s observations during his voyage on HMS Beagle led him to formulate and support his theory of evolution
- plants & animals in South America were very distinct from Europe’s
- Organisms from temperate regions of South America were more like others in the South American - tropics than others from Europe’s temperate regions – fossils displayed the same phenomenon
- earthquake caused coastline to rise
- fossils of ocean organisms high in Andes
- unusual organisms found near young volcanic islands of Galapagos
- most animal species on Galapagos are found nowhere else, yet they resemble species found on the - South American mainland
- 13 species of finches were found with clear beak differences
When he returned to Great Britain in 1836, Darwin began to link the origin of new species with adaptation of species to their environment. By the early 1840s, Darwin had developed his theory of natural selection as the driving force of evolution.

7. While traveling on the Beagle, Darwin read Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which included his idea of uniformitarianism. Darwin then witnessed and experienced an earthquake near Chile, which caused a rise in the coastline. Then, he discovered fossils of ocean organisms in the Andes—which made his infer that the rocks has been raised by similar geological processes. Darwin thus slowly accepted Lyell’s ideas and rejected the old view of gradualism.

8. Descent with modification means that all organisms are descendent of one comment ancestor in their remote past and thus are all related. This idea of Darwin’s suggests that over time, descendents of a common ancestor adapted different to their specific habitats in order to survive and reproduce.

9. Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle convinced him that species change over time. He was able to see how the same species could have a variety of inheritable traits depending on their environment. Through his collective data and observations, Darwin noted how organisms are closed related and seem to share a line of descent, branching down from a common ancestor. Over time, Darwin drew the conclusion that organisms accumulated modifications or adaptations

10. Linnaeus’ classification system or taxonomic scheme fit with Darwin’s theory because it showed how certain organisms can resemble on another more than others do. Apply Darwinism, the hierarchy of this system shows how life branched out from descent from common ancestors.

11. Darwin’s 3 Inferences – led him to propose that the mechanism for evolutionary change was natural selection

FIRST: Because more individuals are produced in an environment than can be
supported, there is a struggle for existence among individuals of a
population. In the end, only a faction of offspring survive.
-Evidence: Due to the high potential fertility of all species, if all individuals born
reproduced successful, population sizes would increase exponentially, yet they
seem to remain stable... Environmental resources are limited.

SECOND: Inherited traits determine survival in the struggle for
existence. Individuals better suited to their environment will live
to reproduce and create more offspring than those less fit
individuals.
-Evidence: No two individuals of a population are
identical—characteristics vary, and this variation can be inherited.

THIRD: Over time, the unequal ability of individuals to survive and
reproduce changes the population. The favorable characteristics will
accumulate over generations.

12. Thomas Malthus’ essay in 1798 on the human population influenced Darwin’s beliefs of “overreproduction.” Malthus wrote that the majority of human problems (i.e. disease, war, homelessness) were caused by the fact that the population size increases faster than food and other resources do. Darwin saw that this potential could be applied to all organisms, yet only a small number of offspring in nature live to reproduce successfully.

13. Artificial selection is the breeding of certain individuals to produce a desired trait. Reproduction is not random, but instead directed. Over a relatively short period of time, changes can be seen in the domesticated organisms. Natural selection is the modification of a species over many thousands of generations through differential success in reproduction due to variable heritable traits passed down to offspring that interact with their environment.

14. Individuals organisms cannot evolve because the process is measured as changes in heritable traits over successive generations. Thus, populations are the smallest unit that can evolve.

15. Reznick and Endler’s hypothesized that differences in life-history traits between guppy populations were due to selective pressure based on predation. The experiments that supported their belief involved a study that lasted over a decade. In different pools in a river system, differences between guppy populations’ age and size of sexual maturity were observed, caused by the disparity of predators present. In the pools where the main predator was the killifish, which eats small guppies, the latter grows quickly and reaches maturity at a faster rate in order to reproduce. In the pools where the pike-cichlid was the major predator, the guppies grew at a slower rate and reproduced at a younger age, so as to avoid being eaten, since their predator mostly fed on large, adult guppies.
To test whether these differences are due to natural selection, Reznick and Endler introduced guppies from pike-cichlid locations to new pools that contained killifish but no guppies. 11 years later, the transplanted guppies were, on average, 14% heavier at maturity than the nontransplanted populations, and their average age at maturity had also increased.
Because pike-cichlids mainly feed on reproductively mature adults, the chance that a guppy will survive to reproduce several times is low. The guppies with the greatest reproductive success in these ponds are therefore those that mature at a young age and small size.

16. Darwin’s theory of natural selection and descent with modification help explain homologous structures, or one that are similar in different species due to common ancestry. Homologies represent variation on ancestral traits. Vestigial organs, another homologous structure, have little to no use in a living organism, but were once important in their ancestors. Examples of these include the appendix in humans. At the molecular level, the similarities in organisms due to relations can be seen in the genetic code.

17. The theory of evolution is supported by evidence from biogeography, or the geographical distribution of species. First of all, species are generally more closely related to other in the same general area than to other species (with similar ways of life) in different areas. Secondly, study of islands have shown that their plants and animals are endemic, or not found elsewhere in the world. A closer look, however, will show that the species found on the island resemble the nearest mainland more than other island groups.

18. Darwinism is not “just a theory” because it is supported by large amount of data, and its effects can be observed in nature. There is a sound scientific basis for Darwinism.
When used colloquially, “theory” means hypothesis or speculation. A simpler word could be “guess.” In science, “theories” are comprehensive attempts to explain a phenomena or event using a collection of data and observations. Scientific theories are not accepted until they have been tested and observed over time, as with natural selection, which has been investigated and checked continuously by scientists.

AP Biology Ch20 Objectives

Chapter 20 – DNA Technology and Genomics

*13, 16, 17 don't have the best answers ever, but my teacher always checked for completion so...

2. Restriction enzymes’ natural function is to cut DNA molecules at specific locations. In bacteria, these enzymes help cut foreign DNA, a process called restriction, and protect bacteria against phages and other bacteria. In recombinant DNA technology, they help cloning genes and DNA by cutting at specific location (thus genes can be reattached elsewhere)
3. Usefulness of Sticks Ends When Producing Recombinant DNA
Sticky ends, or single-stranded and staggered ends, can form hydrogen bonds with complementary sticks ends on any other DNA molecules cut with the same enzyme. They help the cut DNA reattach (generally elsewhere).

4. To clone a eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid...
a. Isolate source of DNA and plasmid (cloning vector)
b. Insert DNA into plasmid
i. DNA and plasmid cut w/ same restriction enzyme
1. plasmid only cut at restriction site on lacZ gene (disabling function)
2. eukaryotic DNA cut in many location, including desired gene
ii. all fragments have complementary sticky ends
c. Mix DNA fragments together to start the base-pairing. Add DNA ligase to make bonds permanent.
d. Mix recombinant plasmids with bacteria lacZ-, which is unable to hydrolyze lactose.
e. Plate bacteria into solid nutrient medium with ampicillin and X-gal. Only the bacteria with ampR grow. X-gal is used to identify the bacteria that have foreign DNA.
f. Identified cells that were cloned with the right gene, using nucleic acid hybridization, a nucleic acid probe, or other methods

5. Nucleic acid hybridization can identify recombinant cells with the gene of interest by the base-pairing the gene and a complementary sequence. Another technique requires the use of a nucleic acid probe, which identifies cells through a radioactively labeled sequence of RNA or DNA.

8. Using yeast cells instead of bacteria as host has some advantages, including yeast’s capability of providing the posttranslational modifications that many proteins require. In addition, yeast already has the essentials of a eukaryotic chromosome.

10. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can amplify any piece of DNA without the use of cells. First, DNA is incubated in a test tube with special DNA polymerase, as well as a primer (short single-stranded DNA). PCR involves a three-step cycle: heating, cooling, and replicating. First, heating denatures the DNA. Then, cooling allows the primers to form hydrogen bonds to the denatured DNA. Next, the DNA polymerase extends the primers in a 5’ à 3 ‘ direction. PCR has the ability to make billions of copies in only a span of a few hours (faster than recombinant bacteria). However, a standard DNA polymerase can’t be use in PCR because it might be denatured during the heating process. Also, errors during replication limit the number of good copies that can be made when vast amounts of DNA are needed.

11. Gel electrophoresis separates nucleic acids by the rate of their movement through an electrically charged gel. The rate of movement depends on size, electrical charge, and other physical properties of macromolecules. Distinguishing between 2 alleles of a gene uses the same process.

12. Nucleic acid hybridization is a technique that depends on the base pairing of DNA. The gene of focus will theoretically bond with a complimentary strand, a different nucleic acid molecule (called the nucleic acid probe). It involves synthesizing RNA or DNA, radioactively labeling a probe, and tagging the colonies with the gene.

13. Southern blotting joins gel electrophoresis and nucleic acid hybridization. The electrophoresis will produce bands from the differences in physical properties. Then, nucleic acid hybridization will label certain bands using a specific radioactive probe. From there, the gene of interest can be found. The process shows whether or not a specific sequence is present in a DNA sample and the size of restriction fragments that holds the sequence. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) can be used as a genetic marker for a particular location/locus in the genome (for making linkage maps). They are detected & analyzed by Southern blotting

15. The goal of the Human Genome Project is to discover the sequencing of the human genome using new DNA technology. A more detailed view of the human genome was desired, with genetic linkage maps, physical maps, as well as (the previously mentioned) DNA sequencing.

16. Cytogenetic maps based on karyotyping and fluorescence hybridization provided a basis for research. A linkage map was then made, with thousands of markers inter-spaced between the chromosomes. Recombination frequencies dictated the order and relative distance of markers. Genetic linkage was tested using those known markers. Then, distances were converted to numbers of nucleotides—a physical measure. A physical map involves cutting chromosomal DNA into identifiable restriction fragments and determining their order. DNA sequencing contributes to the genome mapping project...

17. J. Craig Venter and Celera Genomics used powerful computers assemble DNA sequence from random fragments, skipping the first two steps.

18. DNA sequences are collected in computer data banks. Then, special software scans DNA sequences to find signs of protein-coding, such as start/stop signal and RNA splicing areas.

19. The surprising result of the Human Genome Project is that the estimated number of human genes is 25,000 or fewer, one and a half as much as a fruit fly. One flowering plant has a genome 40 times the size of the human genome.

AP Biology Ch21 Objectives

Chapter 21 – The Genetic Basis of Development

From Single Cell to Multicellular Organism
1. Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) – small, easily raised in labs, short generation time, numerous offspring, embryos develop outside of parents’ bodies
Nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) –easy to grow in petri dish, small & simple body, few cell types, rapid development, mutations easily detected
Mouse (Mus musculus) – comparable genome to humans
Zebrafish (Danio Rerio) – small, easily bred, grow from transparent eggs, rapid early development
Common wall cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) – able to grow in test tube, produces many offspring, relatively small genome

2. Morphogenesis is the physical process in which an organism takes shape. Literally, it means “creation of form.” In plants, morphogenesis and growth related to overall size are not limited to juvenile periods, but continue throughout a plant’s lifetime. On the other hand, the same process in animals is specific to embryo development. Also, cell and tissue movement in required in animals to create the characteristic 3-D organism from the zygote.

Differential Gene Expression
3. Genomic equivalence, or the fact that almost all cells of an organism have the same genes, was proven by the experiment in which a differentiated cell was able to develop into a whole plant. This proved that one cell had all the information necessary to make all the other different types of cells. Cells in multicellular organisms differ due to gene expression—not genome makeup.

4. During differentiation, regulatory mechanisms turn specific genes on or off. However, as time goes by, the nucleus of differentiated cells changes in some way that prevents them from being totipotent; the chromatin structure alters (histones are chemically modified or DNA is methylated) while the DNA base sequence remains the same.

5. In the general process of mammal cloning, the first requirement is two individuals: one for cell donation and one for egg cell donation. The donated cells are half-starved in an inadequate nutrient medium, which thus stops the cell cycle and instigates dedifferentiation. Meanwhile, the donated egg cell has its nucleus removed. Then, the two cells are combined and fuse to form an early embryo which is implanted into a surrogate mother. The organism develops and is genetically identical to the cell donor (from the beginning of the process).

6. Stem cells are relatively unspecialized cells that are able to reproduce an infinite number of times. In the right conditions, they can also differentiate into various specialized cells. Embryonic stem cells are totipotent, while adult ones are pluripotent (not able to give rise to all cell types). In terms for medical significance, stem cells are being research for their possible use in repairing diseased or damaged organs.

7. Determination is a term biologist use in reference to the events that occur before visible cellular differentiation; the molecular changes that irreversibly commit a cell to its fate and function. Gene expression of tissue specific proteins marks cell determination and the change to differentiation. These proteins are cell-type-specific and give a cell its characteristic structure for its future function. Differentiated cells specialized in making their tissue-specific proteins.

9. Regulation of gene expression can be due to change in chromatin, for example the methylation of DNA, or the acetylation of histones. However, the instructions given to a cell telling it when to express certain genes come from two main sources. The first are cytoplasmic determinants. Being heterogeneous, an egg cell’s cytoplasm contains unevenly distributed mRNA, protein, organelles, etc. When mitotic divisions early on cause the zygote’s cytoplasm to be divided into different cells, different nuclei become exposed to different determinants. These determinants in turn regulate gene expression during cell differentiation. Secondly, the cell’s environment is a factor in gene expression. Contact with other surfaces/cells, or nearby signals may affect the time or way in which a cell differentiates.

Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Pattern Formation
10. Drosophila were used to investigate basic aspects of pattern formation (i.e. segmentation and axis formation), which is the development of the spatial organization of tissues and organs in an organism. The research of this species has established the fact that development is controlled by genes, and has led to the understanding that certain molecules play key roles in these processes.
In the investigation, first, mutants were examined, and their genetic maps were studied to find out what went wrong. Then, two German researchers decided to identify all the genes affecting segment formation, and the genes of the mother (due to cytoplasmic determinants).
The two men searched for recessive mutation (which could be propagated in heterozygotes), and then exposed flies to mutagenic chemicals to create gamete mutations. The flies’ offspring were then examined for abnormal segmentation in dead embryos.

11. Maternal effect genes can cause mutations in offspring. A mutant mother will pass the phenotype on to her progeny without regard to the genotype. This occurs because protein products of maternal effect genes are inserted into the egg (when it is still inside the mother). Mothers with a mutated gene make defective gene products or do not make a gene product at all, both of which result in abnormal development. Maternal effect genes also control orientation/polarity of the egg by setting up the anterior-posterior axis as well as the ventral-dorsal one. The bicoid genes of the mothers set up the front end of the flies. Morphogens establish axes.

AP Biology Plant Notes (Ch 20-30 something)

Seed Vascular Plants

P = plant
A = animal
gp = gametophyte
SP = seed plant


Reproductive adaptations
1. gametophytes of seed plants become more reduced in size (compared to the seedless vascular plants) and are retained within moist reproductive tissue of the sporophyte, unlike seedless plant gametophytes, which are independent
2. seeds replace spores as main means of dispersing offspring
a. harsh terrestrial environment required resistant structure for dispersal
b. bryophytes and seed(less?) vascular plants release hard spores
c. seed = more hardy due to multicellularity
d. seed contains sporophyte embryo, food supply, surrounding protective coat
e. all seed plants = heterosporous (have mega and micro sporangia)
f. seed develops into megasporangia
3. pollen became vehicle for sperm cells in seedplants
a. microspores due to pollen grains which mature to male gametophyte
b. coated w/ polymer sporopollenin
c. carried by wind/animals following release

GYMNOSPERMS = lack enclosed chambers (ovaries) in which seeds develop -> open seed

needle-shaped leaves = adapted to dry conditions
v thick cuticle
v stomata are in pits reducing water loss
v despite its different shape, it has megaphylls like all SP leaves

LIFE CYCLE OF A PINE
v sporophyte dominate
v sporangia located on cones
v multicellular sporophyte reduced, develops from haploid spores retained in sporangia
v male gametophyte consists of multicell nutritious tissue
v archegonium developes w/in ovule
v heterosporoustakes nearly 3 yrs to complete life cycle

AP Biology Ch28 Notes

PROTISTS

almost all = aerobic... use mitochondria for respiration
most have cilia and/or flagella (convergent evolution, not homologous to prokaryotes)

Candidate Kingdoms w/ Characteristics
- Diplomonadida – 2 equal sized nuclei
- Parabasala – undulating membrane
- Euglenozoa – spiral/crystalline rod in flagella
- Alveolata – alveoli under plasma membrane
- Stramenopila – hairy and smooth flagella
- Cercozoa & Radiolaria – amoebas w/ threadlike pseudopodia
- Amoebozoa – amoebas w/ lobe-shaped pseudopodia
- Rhodophyta – red algae, phycoerythrin (pigment), not flagellated
- Chlorophyta – group of green algae, plant-type chlorophyll

Endosymbiosis – Genesis – 1st Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
- natural selection driving prokaryotic evolution towards greater complexity

o multicellular forms (cyanobacteria)
o complex prokaryotic communities
o compartmentalization of different functions w/in single cell
o specialization of membrane invaginations (mesosomes) -> golgi, ER?

- SEQUENTIAL
- primary

o photosynthetic cyanobacteria -> plastids -> red & green algae
o close resemblance btwn cyanobacteria & algae

- secondary - heterotrophic eukaryote engulfed in food vacuole à endosymbiont à organelle
- structures/processes

o cytoskeleton
o membrane bound nucleus
o mitochondria
o chloroplasts
o life cycles -> (a)sexual reproduction, meiosis (4 haploid gametes), mitosis (2 cell division)
o endomembrane system
o 9 + 2 flagella
o multiple linear chromosomes w/ proteins

- SERIAL
- certain prokaryotic species (endosymbionts lives) w/in larger prokaryotes...
- evidence based upon mitochondria & chloroplasts’ similarity to prokaryotes in...

o size
o inner membrane w/ enzymes
o replication through binary fission
o circular DNA w/ lack of histones
o own RNA and ribosomes

alternation of generations

MALARIA LIFE CYCLE
parasite plasmodium continually changes surface proteins à protects it from immune system
- inside of mosquito = sexual reproduction

o pick up gametocytes from ppl -> becomes gametes
o fertilization (diploid ONLY here), meiosis -> sporozoites

- goes to human = asexual reproduction (haploid)

o mostly found in liver & blood cells
o fill cells with waste, causing them to explode

Variable Life Cycles
- mitotic divisions
- asexual reproduction
- sexual reproduction -> syngamy: fusion 2 cells, trade genes (btwn episodes of asexual reproduction)
- conjugation

o two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei, sexual shuffling of genes occurs
o dynamics + advantages of sex w/o male or female genders
o eliminates transposons
o increases genetic variation -> natural selection à greater reproductive success

Ecological Categories
- photosynthetic = plant-like (algae)
- ingestive = animal-like (protozoans)
- absorptive = fungi-like
Nutritional Categories
- photoautotrophic have chloroplasts
- heterotrophic absorb/ingest food
- mixotrophic do both

Euglena
- bridge evolutionary gap btwn animals & plants à characteristics from both groups
- may carry on photosynthesis
- have flagella & contractile vacuoles
- lack cell wall
- unicellular
- disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae?
- obtain energy how?
RED Algae
- adapted to deep water – photosynthetic pigments efficient at absorbing blue/green light
- characterized by alternation of generations
- agar, algin, carrageenan
- alveoli under plasma membrane
GREEN Algae - most closely related to plants
Dinoflagellates
- “blooms” = population explosion à red tide caused by carotenoids
- produce nerve agent toxic to ppl
Diatoms = special cell wall structure can support elephant’s weight

phototactic = able to sense light and swim towards it, prefer photosynthesis
phytoplankton = basis of food chain
cyst formation is like that of endospore in bacteria... allows for survival in extremes
protozoans generally heterotrophic, animal-like, ingestiveoomycetes once categorized as fungi

AP Biology Ch19 Notes

Organization and Control

Structure of chromatin... eukaryotic DNA is
· complexed (combined) w/ large amount of protein to form chromatin
· highly extended & tangled during interphase
· condensed into short chromosomes during mitosis
· has an elaborate system of DNA packing to fit all of a cell’s DNA into nucleus

Chromatin undergoes striking changes in the course of cell cycle...
· Interphase à chromatin fibers usually highly extended within nucleus
· Preparation for meiosis à chromatin condenses, forming a characteristic number of short, thick chromosomes that can be distinguished w/ light microscopeeukaryotic chromosomes contain an enormous amount of DNA relative to their condensed length (human chromosome averages about 1.5 × 108 nucleotide pairs... when extended, a DNA molec would be about 4 cm long)

Genome Organization at DNA level
· an organism’s genome is plastic (changeable) in ways that affect that availibility of specific genes for expression
· genes may be avilable for expression of some cells and not others, & at some time in development
· genes can be amplified or made more available
· changes in physical arrangement of DNA (i.e. packing) affect gene expression
· movement of DNA within genome & chemical modification of DNA influence expression

Repetitive DNA & Noncoding Sequences
· account for much of eukaryotic genome
· most DNA doesn’t code for protein or RNA
· coding sequences may be interrupted by introns
· certain sequences may be in multiple copies

Gene Expression in Eukaryotes depends on...
· physical availability of genes due to DNA packing (consisting of nucleosomes, 30nm chromatin fibers, looped domains)
· structural or chemical changes

o methylation—addition of CH3 group
o amplification—many copies of gene
o rearrangements/transposons

· transcriptional control... through transcription factors, enhancers, promoters, hormones, chemical signals
· post-transcriptional control & RNA processing (5’ cap, poly A tail, intron removal, exon ligation)
· translational control (i.e. inititation factors, repressors)
· post-translational control (i.e. cleavage--cutting polypeptides, chemical additions, degradation)

Gene Expression... when abnormalities lead to cancer
· activation of oncogene (cancer causing)
· amplification of poto-oncogene
· mutation of tumor supressor genes (inactivation)

Binding to help RNA polymerase transcribe certain genes
protein -> specific protein -> specific site on cell’s DNA
Advantage of short lived proteins: more precise & efficient control of activities

AP Psychology Ch9 test notes and vocab

consciousness – awareness of mental processes and outside world, info intake from self/environment
nonconscious – automatic body functions (heart, blood sugar level)
subconscious –
preconscious – not conscious, outside of awareness, may become conscious (readily brought to conscious level or into awareness)
unconscious - may alter/effect thoughts, feelings, and actions; difficult to bring into awareness, may be actively kept out of consciousness (Freud)

dualism – consciousness separate from mind
materialism – consciousness and mind are same thing

REM sleep

30-45min into stage 4, when most dreams occur
delta waves desynchronize, theta waves reappear
brain activity increases & bp, breathing, and heart rate resemble those of an alert/aroused person
muscle tone falls, spasms may occur
most prevalent during infancy

Quiet sleep – slow brain waves, deep breathing, calm heart beat, low bp, alpha waves (relaxed state)


BRAIN WAVES
Alpha – relaxed state
Beta – alert state
Delta – deep sleep



VOCAB

Narcolepsy - daytime sleep disorder, generally starts when an individual is 15-25y/o, causes individual to switch from active waking states to REM sleep
Night terrors - most common in boys, occur during stage 3/4 sleep, horrible dream images, may produce screams/fear, often unrecalled
Sleep apnea - breathing stop during the night, must wake to resume normal breathing, moments of awakening not remembered in the morning, but may cause tiredness, and loss of attention/learning ability.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome - when a sleeping baby stops breathing and dies, generally occurs 2 to 4 months after birth
Circadian rhythms - cycles of behavior & physiology that repeat approximately ever 24 hours (25 hours for humans), example of the rhythmic nature of life, may be influenced by signals such as light and dark hours.
lucid dreaming – when an individual is aware that they are dreaming during their dream
role theory of hypnosis - hypnosis is not altered state of consciousness; participants are simply meeting social demands by playing a certain role
state theory of hypnosis - based on idea that hypnosis creates altered state of consciousness and can produce dramatic effects, such as removing warts
dissociation theory - proposed by Hilgard, blends the role and state theories, proposes that hypnosis is not a specific state, but a condition in which normal though and action control is temporarily reorganized or broken up
psychoactive drugs - affect the brain, may change consciousness or other psychological processes
blood-brain barrier - a feature of blood vessels in the brain which prevent certain substances from entering tissue
agnoists - fit into and affect receptors the same way a neurotransmitter would, mimic the effects a normal neurotransmitter would create
antagonists - similar enough to neurotransmitters to take their place in receptor sites, but unable to mimic neurotransmitters’ effects
psychological dependence - when person continues drug use despite undesirable effects and develops such a need for the drug that they become preoccupied with obtaining it in order to maintain sense of well-being

AP Psychology Ch5 test notes

Notes on Vision and Perception

Sensation – activity of sense organ when detecting stimulus
Intensity – physical strength of stimulus (required in order for sensation to occur)
Noise – background stimulation for any sense that takes away from the sensation of the “main” stimulus
Adaptation – with prolonged exposure, body can tune out a sense and adapt or get used to it

Signal detection theory – other psychological factors influence our experience of stimuli and perception of the world… there is more than just the physical factors affecting sensation (i.e. logic—how we think about the stimulus)
Absolute threshold – least amount of energy required for stimulus to be detected by sense at least 50% of the time

Weber’s Law – consistent numbers for JNDs à 2% weight, 20% slatiness, 10% loudness, 14% pressure, 5% smell, .3% pitch
Fechner’s Law – how much more does the intensity of a stimuli have to increase for the sensation to be twice as strong? …the stronger the sensation from the start, the harder it is or the more required for it to be twice as much

Visible light in spectrum = about 350-380nm to 760nm
Primary colors of light = red, blue, green
Light = additive, all colors together make white
Saturation – richness of color
Brightness – hue from light to dark

Negative afterimages – what is left after the firing of ganglia
Binocular vision – ability to focus on something with both eyes, increases depth
dark-adaptation – within 30 minutes
light-adaptation – within a matter of minutes
blind-spot –where the optic nerve enters the eyes, no rods/cones, no photoreceptors
monocular cue accommodation – ability of eye to focus on an object, lens tights & loosens, accommodates & converges
shape consistency – even though image on retina may change shape, image stays the same in your head
size consistency – closer objects fill more of retina, even though image on retina may change size, image remains the same in your head
color consistency – color stays consistent in head, even though the light hitting it is always changing
tempera summation – summarize everything that’s going on in your eye
active coding theory – we are constantly coding colors in our eyes; it is an active process for us to perceive color
opponent coding theory – we either see one color or its opposite
depth – ability to have images in 3-D; images hit our retina as 2-D and are processed in our frontal lobes as 3-D
interposition/occlusion – occurs when you have 1 object covering another (blocked) object, and the mind

Young-Helmhotlz / Trichromatic Theory (1800s) – color perception from retina; cones for red, green, blue; everything = combinations of three main colors; most receptors dedicated to red
Hering Hurvich / Opponent-process Theory – every color perceived in ganglia, color or opposite (i.e. blue vs yellow), after image theory
Retinex Theory – everything we see is compared to everything we’ve seen before

Human eye = inefficient, inside-out and backwards… in TV would be like having screen, wires, image
Near-sighted people have problem of image hitting too soon on retina
Color blindness – men more likely than woman, traited carried on X-chromosome; 4 out of 1000 women, 8 out of 100 men
Protanopia – red, green, yellow all look yellow
Deuteranopia – red, green, yellow all look red
Tritanopia – shorter wavelengths difficult to see, can’t see dark colors


PARTS OF EYE

Cornea – outer protective layer, 1st part light passes through, altered with
laser surgery
Aqueous humor – liquid between cornea and iris/pupil/lens
Iris – color part
Pupil – light regulator
Lens – focusing part of eyes (can be linked to problems with sight), beneath cornea,
can be tightened/loosened (accommodation) or moved in/out (converging)
Ciliary muscle – controls lens size
Vitreous humor – liquid inside eye cavity
Fovea – back center of retina, only has cones, last part of eye to finish developing
Retina – where light hits after traveling through lens, receives inverted image, filled by 126 million light-sensitive photoreceptors (in both eyes)
Rods – sensitive to black/white, 60 million per eye, many in nocturnal creatures, release chemical called rhodopsin when hit by light
Cones – sensitive to color, 3 million per eyes, more sensitive so less stimulation needed, released chemical opsin when hit by light
Sclera – clear-colored but opaque inner covering, protective, where dirt/grime collects and washed to eye ducts
Blind spot – where option nerve connect with eye, no photoreceptors

AP Psychology Ch5 vocab

1. The term perception refers to the process of interpreting sensation using knowledge and understanding of the world in order to create meaningful experiences.

2. The computational approach deals with solving perceptual problems through computation, as a machine would. It is believed that if machines and their methods of turning raw sensory information into a representation of reality can be understood, then so can the complex nervous systems of animals. This approach focuses on how signals are manipulated.

3. The constructiveness approach states that our perceptual systems uses fragments of sensory information in order to construct our representation of the world from fragments of sensory information. Perception influenced by expectations and inferences from prior knowledge or past experiences. Constructivist psychologists are interested in how people can perceive the same stimuli differently.

4. The ecological approach is based on the idea that perceptual experiences are mostly based on the wealth of information directly contained in a stimulus presented by the environment. Perception is believed to support actions. Psychologists who follow this approach focus on how we use sensory information to guide us.

5. Psychophysics is a method of studying perception and describing the relationship between our psychological experiences and the physical energy behind them.

6. An absolute threshold is the minimum amount of physical energy required to trigger a conscious perceptual experience at least 50% of the time.

7. A subliminal stimuli is one that falls beneath the absolute threshold and is too weak or brief to make a person conscious of their presence.

8. The signal detection theory is a mathematical model of determining factors in how people respond when attempting to detect faint stimuli. The premise of this theory is that people will experience perceptual stimulation even when the signal/stimulus is absent.

9. Noise is any perceptual stimulation that occurs other than an intended signal. It can be external (from the environment) or internal/neural (from random firing of cells on the nervous system).

10. Sensitivity is a person’s ability to discriminate correctly between a stimulus and its background. It can be influenced by the capacity of a person’s sensory systems, the intensity of the stimulus, and internal noise.

11. The response criterion reflects a person’s willingness to state when a stimulus is present, which in turn is affected by the person’s wants, needs, and expectations.

12. The difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (JND) is the minimum detectable difference in the intensity of a stimuli.

13. Fechner’s law deals with magnitude estimation, and is based on the idea that JNDs progressively increase as stimulus magnitude (perceived intensity) increases. This law applies to light and sound, among other things, but the reverse is true for shocks (perceiving feeling from electricity).

14. The likelihood principle is based upon the idea that people have a tendency to automatically perceive objects the way experience tells them is the most likely physical arrangement.

15. Perceptual constancy is the perception of objects as constant in certain properties (i.e. shape, size, color), despite changes in the retinal image produced by them.

16. In bottom-up processing, recognition is based upon specific, detailed information elements that are integrated from the sensory receptors and assembled into a whole. This phenomenon starts with basic information and uses it as a foundation for recognition.

17. Stroboscopic motion is a motion illusion that occurs due to people’s tendency to interpret still images flashed in rapid succession as continuous motion. This is the basis for our ability to see motion in movies.

18. In top-down processing, aspects of recognition begin at the top of the conceptual level, guided by expectations and knowledge among other psychological factors. This phenomenon involves higher-level information.

19. Schemas are personal beliefs.

20. Parallel distributed processing, which is used by researchers to explain recognition, involves units in a network operating parallel or simultaneously.

AP Psychology Ch4 vocab

1. The term sense refers to a system that takes information from outside the nervous system and translates it into neural activity.

2. Accessory structures are involved in the first step in sensation and modify incoming energy.

3. Transduction, when incoming energy is converted into neural activity, is the second step in sensation.

4. Transduction occurs at sensory receptors, which are structures with specialized cells that can detect certain forms of energy.

5. Adaptation occurs over time as responsiveness to an stimuli decreases due to the fact that the stimuli remains at a constant level and there is no change in energy.

6. Coding is the translation of a stimuli’s physical properties into a pattern of neural activity that identifies those specific physical properties.

7. Temporal codes provide information about a stimulus based on changes in timing of firing, and can be as complex as slow-quick-slow firing or burst-steady-slow firing.

8. Spatial codes provide information about a stimulus based upon the location of firing neurons.

9. The basilar membrane is the floor of the fluid-filled tube that makes up the cochlea.

10. The place theory, also known as the traveling wave theory, states that hair cells are most responsive at the peak of the sound wave, and thus describes a spatial code for frequency.

11. Frequency matching is how very low frequencies which have no auditory nerve fibers that have such characteristics, can be heard: the firing rate of a neuron matches the frequency of a sound wave.

12. Accommodation refers to the ability to change the shape of the lens in order to bend light rays.

13. Acuity is the ability to see details. It is greatest in the region called the fovea, which contains a high concentration of cones.

14. Convergence is an arrangement in which photoreceptors stimulate cells when light strikes them, thus increasing each bipolar cell’s sensitivity.

15. Lateral inhibition enhances the sensation of contrast. It occurs one cell’s response to light excited or inhibits the response of a neighboring cell.

16. The trichromatic theory states that there are three visual elements which produce the sensation of color as a result of their varying sensitivity to different wavelengths of light.

17. The opponent-process theory states that visual elements sensitive to color are grouped into pairs. The membranes of these pairs oppose or inhibit each other (only one color sensation can be created by one pair).

18. Analgesia is the absence of feelings of pain as a result of brain messages that block incoming pain signals. A painful stimulus is thus less likely to produce an painful sensation.

19. Proprioceptive sensory systems are the ones that receive information from the outside world.

20. Kinestesia is the sense of where your body parts are with respect to one another (i.e. foot compared to knee).

Marie Curie

             Marie "Maria" Curie was the first woman ever to win a Nobel Prize and the first scientists to ever receive the prize twice. She researched high energy rays, and found two new elements, polonium and radium. Working with her physicist husband, Pierre Curie, Maria also developed radioactivity and brought it into the world, applying it, along with x-rays, to medical care and treatment.

             Born in Warsaw, Poland on November 7, 1867, she was the fifth child in her family, and fourth daughter. Her parents, both of them teachers, named her Maria Sklodowska. Her name became Marie when she moved to France, and her last name changed to Curie when she married.

             After elementary school, Maria attended Warsaw’s “Floating University,” a Polish school that trained students to become teachers. In 1891, at age twenty-four, she enrolled at the Sorbonne, in Paris, becoming of the few women to attend the university. Despite financial hardships regarding the cost of her education, she received a degree in physics in 1893, graduating first in her class. She got her master’s degree the next year, finishing second in her class. She was then given the Alexandrovitch Scholarship which allowed her to continue her education without financial worries. She then began to pursue her doctorate. In 1903, she became the first female to complete her doctorate in France, summa cum laude. Afterwards, she got married and became an unpaid researching physicist.

             Maria was had been given lab space where her husband, Pierre Curie, worked, at L’École Municipale de Physique et Chimie Industrielle, and she spent eight hours a day investigating the magnetic qualities of steel. Like other scientists, she was captivated by the discovery of Antoin-Henri Becquerel, a French physicist, that the element uranium released rays containing large amount of energy.

             Using the piezoelectric quartz electrometer made by her husband and his brother, Jacques, she tested all of the elements known to see if any of them caused the nearby air to conduct electricity the way uranium did. In her first year of research, Maria came up with name “radioactivity” to describe the force, and summarized that only thorium and uranium a were radioactive. However, she observed that more rays were produced by the mineral pitchblende than accounted for by either of the elements. Maria concluded that greater radioactivity was being caused by some other radioactive element. Separating this element would require much effort. She would have to take apart pitchblende using chemical analysis and measure the radioactivity of each separate component.

             Maria and her husband, Pierre, successfully extracted an element from the ore that was more radioactive than uranium in July of 1898. They named it polonium, to honor Maria’s homeland. In January of the following year, the two discovered radium, another radioactive substance, inside of pitchblende. While both physicist believed that the two elements existed, they had to prove their existence by describing them fully and calculating their atomic weight. However, this required a better laboratory and a large supply of pitchblende. Maria was able to obtain those two things, and began to work with her husband, chemically separating the pitchblende, while he analyzed the physical properties of the substances derived from separations. In 1902, the couple succeeded in determining radium’s atomic weight, and thus it’s chemical individuality.

             In 1903, Maria and her husband started getting international acknowledgment for their research. In November of that year, the Curie couple was awarded England’s prestigious Humphry Davy Medal. Then, in December, Maria and Pierre receive the Nobel Prize in physics for their research and expansion of scientific knowledge about radioactivity. Maria was the first woman to receive Nobel Prize. Soon after, Maria was given the Daniel Osiris Prize.

             Maria finally was able to isolate pure radium metal in 1910, and in 1911, Maria was awarded the Nobel Prize again, for her discovery of polonium and radium, becoming the first scientist to ever win it twice.

             When World War I broke out, Maria brought her radiology technology to the war front by teaching the medical personnel in the army how to sensibly apply radiology, by volunteering at the National Aid Society. She installed radiological equipment into ambulanced so that soldiers who were hurt wouldn’t have to be moved far to be x-rayed. After the war, Maria continued her research, dedicating her time to her work.

             While Maria’s main occupation was as a physicist, she had various jobs in her lifetime. When she was just seventeen, she became a governess to pay for her older sister’s medical school. While married, her husband’s salary wasn’t enough to support the family, so Maria became a physics lecturer at L’École Normal Supérieure, and at the same time, become the first female teacher in the school. In 1904, she became a laboratory chief, her first paid research job. Then, when her husband died in April of 1906, the University of Paris invited Maria to take his job at the school one month later. She accepted, and became the first female to have a job in higher education in France. Maria was named a full professor in 1908. She wasn’t just a teacher and a researched though. Maria also wrote and published a many books, some of which she co-wrote with her husband, while he was still alive.

             By the 1920s, Maria had become an international figure. She continued to work in the laboratory until her declining health forced her to spend less time there. Maria had contracted leukemia, due to her extended exposure to radium. She died on July 4, 1934, in the French Alps, and was buried next to her husband in Sceaux, France.

             Marie Curie’s work expanded on the topic of radioactivity and broadened scientific knowledge. Without her, x-rays and radiology might not be used in medical care and treatment. People with broken legs, tumors, and cancer would suffer terribly if that was the case. Her work has prolonged the life of a friend of mine who suffered from cancer and enabled doctors to see my spine and check for scoliosis. The work of this one female scientist has impacted this world in more ways than it seems.

Economics Notes

Economics Test

1. Free trade arguments: helps global economy, foreign competition keeps prices down & encourages better quality products, lowers trade barriers, encourages better & more open relationships, protectionism can prompt retaliation (reducing exports and hurting businesses)

2. Protectionism arguments: nations w/ free trade are too specialized & codependent, new industries require protection from foreign business/competition, domestic businesses hurt by competition of cheap foreign labor, limited imports keep money in country, tool of influence/retaliation

3. Free trade: trade between countries w/ no barriers

4. Protectionism: use of trade barriers to protect industries from foreign competition (i.e. tariffs, quotas, embargos, and subsidies)

5. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): eliminated trade restrictions between Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., helped economies, increased trade, stimulated healthy competition, created less expensive goods and job growth

6. Externalities: side effects of economic decisions

7. Regulatory policies & agencies: protect public, makes rules about health & safety and requirements for products on market

8. Federal Reserve System: nation’s central bank made of 12 regional banks

9. Monetary policy: Federal Reserve System’s way of adjusting money supply, deals with discount rates, bank reserve requirements, and bonds to influence GDP and inflation

10. Expansionary policy: when economy is slow, government’s fiscal policy for less unemployment involves more spending and/or lower taxes

11. Contractionary policy: when economy is too fast, government’s fiscal policy to decrease inflation and slow demand is decreased spending and/or higher taxes

12. Reserve requirements: amount of money banks must have on hand at all times, set by Fed, change by monetary policy

13. Direct regulation: government policies that set rule/standard for individuals and businesses to follow, and provide punishment for not following the standard

14. Market incentives: government policies that help individuals/businesses (economically), or force them to assume total cost of actions

15. Inflation: increase in money supply when resources remain constant causing prices to rise and value of currency to fall

16. Recession: decrease in money supply when supplies are constant

17. Entitlements: what government is expected to provide for poor, old, disabled, etc. (i.e. Medicare)

18. Fiscal policy: Congress and President controlling economic activity through taxes and spending (contractionary vs. expansionary policies)

19. Tariff: tax on imported products, raising prices, giving domestic producer competitive advantage

20. Quota: limit # of given product which can be imported for given period, helps domestic industries

21. Embargo: total ban on imports/exports, can be used as punishment/protest against other nations

22. Trade deficit: when countries import more than they export (negative balance of trade)

23. Comparative advantage: certain areas of the ability/resources to more easily provide goods/services than elsewhere à production has lower opportunity cost

24. Why nations trade: satisfies people’s wants/needs easily and cheaply, helps world economy, different nations specialize in different things, codependence, exports bring in money, imports might be cheaper (foreign labor costs less)

25. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): dollar value of all goods/services produced

26. Consumer Price Index (CPI): determines inflation rate and % change in prices over time, indicator of cost of living, measures price of standard goods of typical consumer

27. Export: goods sent to another country for sale

28. Import: goods brought in from another nation for sale

English, analysis of Alice in Wonderland

The Confusion of Growing Up


             Growing up, a period of time between childhood and adulthood, is a difficult transition for everyone. Children struggle to find themselves and figure out who they are. In Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, motifs are used to show the reader how growing up is confusing and difficult for children, and sometimes makes them doubt who they are.

             Throughout the book, Alice constantly changes in size, growing and shrinking to extremes at random moments in time. She finds these changes traumatic because they leave her frustrated and confused. Alice is unable to accept the awkward changes and begins to question her own identity. She wonders aloud on page 9 and 10 if she is a different person today than she was yesterday:

“Let me think: was I the same when I got up this morning? I almost think I
can remember feeling a little different. But if I’m not the same, the next
question is ‘Who in the world am I?’”... And she began thinking over all the
children she knew... to see if she could have been changed for any of them.

Alice doubts who she is so much that she starts to believe she has become totally different, not just in size, but in her entire being. She is so flustered by her changes she thinks that she is no longer Alice. The changes her body is going through confuse her into thinking that she has become one of her friends. Alice’s fluctuating height and size is a motif Carroll uses to help develop his theme, that growing up is difficult for children.

             In Chapter 5, Carroll’s uses the motif of changing size again, to establish his theme that children find growing up discomforting and frustrating, since they cannot understand everything their bodies are going through. Evidently Alice is suffering an identity crisis when the caterpillar asks her who she is. She has become so muddled by her growing and shrinking that she replies, “I—I hardly know, Sir... I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I think I must have changed several times since then” (pg 32). Alice cannot explain who she is in a world that is constantly altering her sense of self. She argues that since her body has gone through changes, she cannot be the same person she was before the changes occurred. When the caterpillar demands that she elaborate on her response, Alice says, “I can’t explain myself, I’m afraid... because I’m not myself, you see” (pg 32). Since she doesn’t understand the changes she is going through, she reasons that she cannot understand herself and thus, must not be who she normally is. Growing up has made Alice doubt that she knows herself.

             After her meeting with the Caterpillar, Alice bites a piece of a magical mushroom, which makes her grow extremely tall. Her sudden growth spurt has disturbed a pigeon, which screams that Alice is a serpent about to steal its eggs. The Pigeon’s accusation causes Alice to further doubt who she is. Already shaken from her belief that she is her normal self, Alice has trouble defending herself. She tries to deny the pigeon’s allegation, but falters when it asks her what she is; “‘I—I’m a little girl,’ said Alice, rather doubtfully, as she remembered the number of changes she had gone through that day” (pg 38). All the changes Alice is going through confuse her to the point where she not only doubts if she is Alice, but if she is human. Like before with the caterpillar, Alice cannot explain who she is. Growing up (literally) has made her think she isn’t herself. She struggles to gain a sense of identity while also maintaining a comfortable physical size.

             Lewis Carroll’s theme, that a child’s sense of identity is shaken by his or her experiences while growing up, is developed and enhanced by his usage of motifs. Rhetorical devices, such as imagery, symbolism, and motifs, can assist in the development of themes.

English, essay analysis

for Judy Syfers' “I Want a Wife”


             While simple things like grammar and structure can help distinguish a bad writer from a good writer, a strong style is what sets a great writer apart from a mediocre one. In her satirical essay “I Want a Wife,” Judy Syfers successfully captures the reader with her effective opening statement, and reinforces her ideas with her use of language in parallelism, descriptive details, and repetition.

             Perhaps the most interesting part of Syfers’ essay is that after the title, “I Want a Wife,” in her opening, she states, “I belong to that classification of people known as wives. I am A Wife.” Her choice of words and her straight forward statement rouse the reader’s curiosity, egging them to read on. The reader feels some confusion about why someone who is a wife would want one, and thus is pulled in by the eye-catching title and beginning.

             Then, Syfers’ essay is organized into a simple yet continuous list of wants, using rhetorical strategies. She centers her writing around her question “Why do I want a wife?” by constantly repeating and reusing the phrases “I want a wife” and “a wife who...” This repetition reinforces her idea that too much is demanded of wives and that husbands are often not realistic in their expectations of their partners. Syfers also uses parallelism as she lists what she desires of a wife, for example when she writes, “I want a wife who will keep my clothes clean, ironed, mended...” This structure keeps her essay organized so that her ideas flow.

             Syfers also uses exaggeration and sarcasm in her writing. For example, in one part of her essay, she writes, “If, by chance, I find another person more suitable as a wife than the wife I already have, I want the liberty to replace my present wife with another one.” This would be a very extreme expectation of a wife. In fact, it makes a wife seem like a replacement item or toy, not a person. Later, Syfers writes ““I want a wife who will remain sexually faithful... And I want a wife who understands that my sexual needs may entail more than strict adherence to monogamy.” These desires are not only unfair to the wife, but also on the borderline of simply ridiculous. Syfers’ use of both exaggeration and sarcasm make her satire both amusing and effective for the reader.

             Syfers ends her essay with the rhetorical question, “My God, who wouldn't want a wife?” No only is it filled with sarcasm, which reinforces her ideas, but it also closes the essay. Her ending ties up all her thoughts simply while leaving the reader with some thoughts.

             Syfers’ essay is not only unique, but also captivating, in that it includes rhetorical strategies and techniques. She successfully presents her ideas and reinforces them throughout her writing.

Biology Bioethics Project Research

Xenotransplanting is when organs, tissues, or cells of one species are transferred into another species. Currently scientists are working on nonhuman animal organs that might possibly be used to replace human organs that are diseased or damaged. So far, there have been no successes.
Scientists have experimented with organs from chimps and baboons, but find that pigs are the best choice because their organs are about the same size as human organs (belonging to adults). In addition, pigs lessen the question of ethics, because they are also killed for the purposes of consumption.
The problem with transplanting organs is that they are often rejected. The organ that was transplanted becomes swollen and black, dying within minutes. Attempting to prevent organ rejection, scientists have experimented with transgenic pigs, or pigs that were created with pig embryos and injected human genes. However, the biggest concern with xenotransplanting is that animals viruses might spread to people.
(all information from page 544 from World Book)

Genetically modified food was produced when scientists attempted to create healthier and better tasting food. Among others are the idea of tomatoes that can fight cancer and beans that wouldn’t result in gas. However, currently the most well known genetically modified foods have only gone as far as helping farmers on the issues of weed control and pesticides. The two processes used to create genetically modified food are selective breeding and genetic engineering (which enables scientists to insert certain genes into plants and animals, allowing easy species crossing).

World History, Renaissance People Project

Desiderius Erasmus
v Dutch (from the Netherlands)
v Christian humanist
v view of religion referred to as “philosophy of Christ”
v felt that religion should teach people how to live good lives on a daily basis, not give a system of beliefs
v criticized the Church’s abuses in The Praise of Folly (1509)
v believed external forms of religion were unneccessary, including pilgrimages, fasting, and relics
v set the foundation for the Reformation (refer to Martin Luther)

Baldassare Castiglione
v Italian writer
v wrote The Book of the Courtier (1528)
§ contained expectations of nobles/aristocrats
§ expressed ideal characteristics/behavior of perfect nobility
· born, not made
· must have grave and talent
· military/physical exercise
· classical education
· standard of conduct: show achievements with grace
§ followed for hundred of years
v greatly influenced social/political life and conduct

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
v German artist
v painted “Adoration of Maggi”
v greatly influenced by Italian artists – learned laws of perspective from them
v affected northern artistic Renaissance
§ used minute details, which were harmoniously worked into his art
§ tried to achieve standard of ideal beauty
§ carefully examined human form

Francesco Petrarch
v Florentine scholar and humanist
v called the father of Italian Renaissance humanism
v fostered development of humanism in the 14th century
v looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts à started search for similar works in monastic libraries throughout Europe
v began the emphasis on using pure classical Latin

Giotto
v Florentine painter and architect
v did many religious works
v one of the first artists in the Renaissance to give expressiveness to religious figures (made them more human)
v depicted realistic humans and animals
v showed human emotion in paintings
v understood pictorial space— how to make background and foreground
v direct approach to human experience/existence

Leonardo da Vinci
v Italian painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, mathematician, and engineer
v mastered art of realistic painting
v dissected human bodies
v goal was to create idealized forms
v able to show human emotion in his works
v wanted to show perfection of nature and individual in his art
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period

Raphael Santi
v Italy’s best painter – created the numerous madonna works
v made frescoes in Vatican Palace (ex: School of Athens)
v showed unity between Christianity and humanism in his art
v paintings reveal balance, harmony, order
v one of the 3 “artistic giants” of the High Renaissance period

Niccolo Machiavelli
v Italian
v wrote The Prince
§ about politics in the West – how to obtain and keep power
§ rejected the idea that rulers should follow Christian principles
§ people with power can “act on behalf of the state” (without moral obligations)
v strong influence on following political leaders
v first person to stop using ethics/morals when scrutinizing political activity

Thomas More
v English
v Christian humanist & devout Catholic
v opposed King Henry VIII’s break from pope & his Act of Supremacy (1534)
v beheaded for disagreeing with king

Giovanni Boccaccio
v Italian author/poet
v wrote in vernacular language
v works contained realistic, lively individuals
v did not follow medieval character set ups, which were based upon piety, charity, and humility
v wrote Decameron
§ greatly influenced European literature
§ was borrowed from by Chaucer and Shakespeare (2 great English writers)
§ subject of many poems

Francois Rabelais
v French Renaissance author, philosopher & humanist
v studied Greek, Latin, science, philology, law
v practiced medicine
v revolutionary satirical works on sociopolitical events
v ridiculed certain Roman Catholic practices
v invented new words & metaphors
v supported etymological spelling
v influential writer

Isabella d’Este
v Italian marquise
v commissioned sculptures in Roman style
v made Mantua one of the most cultured courts in Europe
v drawn by Titan and Leonardo da Vinci
v important role in Italian politics: advanced Mantua’s position

Miguel de Cervantes
v Spanish novelist, playwright, & poet
v wrote Don Quixote de la Mancha
§ considered 1st modern novel & great work of Western literature
§ written in vernacular language
v influenced writing – mastered dialogue and included much of it in his famous works
v also a soldier - fought in several battles, including the capture of Tunis

William Shakespeare
v English dramatist, playwright, actor, shareholder in theatre company (Lord Chamberlain’s Men)
v known for English literature during Elizabethan Era
v referred to as universal genius and master of language
v keen insight into human psychology
v wrote many comedies and dramas, which are still read today

Johannes Gutenberg
v German
v wrote Gutenberg’s Bible (1455) – 1st European book produced on a movable printing press
v played role in learning how to print with movable metal printing press
v helped with spread of knowledge

Hans Holbein the Younger
v German artist of Northern Renassiance
v illustrated Desiderius Erasmus’s satires
v helped with Martin Luther’s Bible translation
v painted many works for King Henry VIII and his court
v made portraits with ink and chalk of his subjects before painting

Hans Holbein the Older
v German painter
v created religious art in late Gothic style
v began the change of German art from Gothic to Renaissance style
v famous for illustrations in The Praise of Folly (see Desiderius Erasmus)

AP Lang-Comp, Excerpt Journals

for I Know Why The Caged Bird Cries

*my English teacher kept this assignment because she said I did exactly what she wanted, so beware if you copy word for word, as she might be YOUR teacher!

Chapter 4
“...[Whites] were different, to be dreaded, and in that dread was included the hostility of the powerless against the powerful, the poor against the rich, the worker against the worked for and the ragged against the well dressed.” (20)

As a child living in the South, Maya Angelou describes her town’s segregation as being so complete that she often wondered if “whitefolks” actually existed, or if they were just characters in the stories told to children. She cannot imagine what the whites look like. She only knows that they are “different,” and very dangerous. Intuitively, she dreads them with a fear that is learned, if not taught. Though she may lack the ability to fully comprehend the racism, the unspoken pressures of society cause her to shrink away from the whites and approach them with apprehension. Angelou classifies the whites as wealthy, well-dressed bosses who reign over poor and ragged working blacks. Though the events in the chapter that triggered her to describe her dread—“and in that was included the hostility...”—occurred during her youth, the author uses her adult voice to describe the emotions the whites triggered inside her. This set up shows the lasting effects of the Southern segregation and racism on Angelou.

Chapter 18
“[The blacks] basked in the righteousness of the poor and the exclusiveness of the downtrodden. Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly—mostly—let them have their whiteness.” (110)

The differences between blacks and whites in the South are a result of segregation, racism, and grievances piled upon grievances. Oppressed and powerless, the blacks work tirelessly to make ends meet. The whites, on the other hand, seem to have everything at their fingertips—“money and power... and big houses and schools.” The unfairness of the world torments the blacks. In their desperate search for something to give them hope and ease the pain of the injustices they suffer, the blacks find spirituality.
The church addresses the need of the blacks for something to believe in. The blacks reason that, because of the suffering they have endured, they must be loved by God. They will be saved by their “righteousness,” while justice is dealt to the whites. The wounds of the blacks are soothed by the idea that the whites will burn in hell for eternity. God will balance the scales.
Throughout the text though, each time the blacks try to find peace through their belief in the impending Judgment Day, they eventually return to reality to be weighed down by the injustice of their condition. Although the blacks attempt to preserve their dignity and pride in the face of racism, they are dispirited by the juxtaposition of all that is present in the white world and all that is lacking in the black.

AP Lang-Comp, Chapter Summaries

for I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings


Chapter 4
The reader discovers Maya’s profound love for her brother Bailey through her adoring and worshiping tone. As she describes her childhood, Maya’s voice is young and naïve. Maya narrates her occasional trips with Bailey into the white part of town, which occurred whenever Momma felt it necessary for them to eat fresh protein. This trip, for her, always brought intense feeling of dread, as the “whitefolks” were considered dangerous and foreign creatures by the black children.

Chapter 9
At seven-years old, Maya finally meets her father when he unexpectedly visits Stamps. At first, his large stature, striking beauty, and flowing language fill Maya with pride, until she becomes afraid that people will compare her to him and come to the conclusion that she is not truly his daughter. Then, her father announces that he will be going back to California, and offers to take his children with him. While this move fills Maya with apprehension, her story becomes even more choked with fear when she discovers that she and Bailey are actually going to meet their “Mother Dear” in St. Louis.

Chapter 19
Men, women, children, and babies all are crammed into the Store, trying to listen to the radio. An intense boxing match is being broadcasted. The match, however, has a higher meaning: it is a fight between a white man and a black man for the World Championship. The tensions in the scene can be felt, as Maya incorporates suspense and drama into her writing. At last, the victory—proof that there is justice in the world—goes to Joe Louis, the “Brown Bomber,” the black boy, and the new Champion of the World.

Chapter 24
Childish overstatements, including the belief that she will die from pain, are interspersed within Maya’s writing as she narrates getting two cavities. Momma takes her to the white dentist in town, believing that he will do the job because he owes her a favor, but the dentist refuses to help, and spits out a cruel racist comment before rudely walking away. Momma collects herself, tells Maya to stay outside, and then enters the office. Once Momma comes out, she takes Maya to a black dentist in Texarkana, who quickly takes care of the rotten teeth. That night, back in Stamps, Momma tells Uncle Willie what happened inside the office, and Maya, who had made up her own creative version, is much disappointed.

AP French5: Charles Pierre Baudelaire

*remember, I wrote this for the French teacher that keeps EVERYTHING so I wouldn't copy word for word, just incase you have my teacher!

             Charles Pierre Baudelaire, un poète français du 19ème siècle, est aujourd'hui reconnu comme un écrivain majeur de l'histoire de la France. Il est devenu un classique. L'influence de Baudelaire sur la littérature est considérable. Baudelaire s'appelle souvent « le père de la critique moderne ». Il est censé pour avoir commencé le mouvement de Symbolist.


             Baudelaire est né à Paris le 9 avril, 1821. Son père, un homme lettré et un artiste d'amateur de Champagne, s’appelait Joseph François Baudelaire. Sa mère s’appelait Caroline Defavis. Joseph François avait soixante ans quand il a épousé Caroline, qui avait vingt-six ans. Joseph François est mort en 1827, quand son fils avait 6 ans. L’année suivante, Caroline avait marié Jacques Aupick, qui plus tard devenait un ambassadeur français. Baudelaire adorait sa mère et ne pouvait pas accepter son deuxième mariage.


             Baudelaire est allé à l'internat. Il a étudié au Collège royal à Lyon (1832-1836), et Lycée Louis-le-Grand à Paris (1936-1939). Après avoir gagné son degré en 1839, il a décidé de commencer sa carrière littéraire. Ainsi, il est intéressant de noter qu'il était un étudiant de loi pendant une période courte.


             Endetté, Baudelaire était placé sous tutelle judiciaire en 1842. Il commençait alors à composer plusieurs poèmes, et il est devenu un critique d'art et du journalisme. Ses critiques d'art de 1845 à 1846 ont attiré une attention immédiate pour leur hardiesse. Ses avis étaient avancés pour cette période du temps. Aujourd’hui, ses idées sont généralement acceptées.


             En 1857, Baudelaire produisait son premier volume de poèmes, Les Fleurs du mal. C'était son volume le plus célèbre. Les poèmes ont reçu beaucoup d'attention pour leurs principaux thèmes du sexe et de la mort qui étaient considérés scandaleux. Son œuvre était critiqué pour « offense à la morale religieuse » et « outrage à la morale publique et aux bonnes moeurs ». Baudelaire était forcé de payer une amende de 50 francs et six de ces poèmes étaient condamnés.


             Baudelaire avait appris l'anglais dans son enfance. En 1846, après avoir lu Edgar Allen Poe, il décidait de traduire les chefs d'oeuvre. Il avait fait des versions françaises des histoires et des poésies de Poe. Baudelaire les avait édité dans ses livres Histoires Extraordinaires (1852), Nouvelles Histoires Extraordinaires (1857), Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym (1865), Eureka (1865), et Histoires Grotesques et Sérieuses (1865). Deux essais sur Poe étaient dans son livre Oeuvres Complètes. Les autres travaux (en français) de Baudelaire incluent Petits Poèmes en Prose, un Dernier Chapitre de l'Histoire des Oeuvres de Balzac, et une série de revues d'art.

             En 1861, ses difficultés financières accrues parce que son éditeur Poulet Malassis a fait faillite. Baudelaire a quitté Paris pour la Belgique en 1864. À Bruxelles, il a commencé à boire à l'excès. C’était dans cette période que Baudelaire a rencontré Jeanne Duval, avec laquelle il a eu un long rapport romantique.

             Malheureusement, Baudelaire a eu une hémorragie cérébrale en 1866 et est devenu paralysé. Les dernières mois de sa vie ont été passées dans « maisons de santé» à Bruxelles et à Paris. Baudelaire est mort août 31, 1867 dans une clinique de Paris. Il est enterré dans Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris.

AP Psychology Jung notes

Jungian Dream Interpretation

Jung believed all of our dream help us understand our true self better. The four steps you take are as follows-

1- Little Dreams vs. Big Dream: Jung believed little dream are recollections of the day focusing on areas where we weren't being true to ourselves, we were not being the best we could be. Big Dreams are critical to our future, when we are dreaming things to shed light on the person we want to become (our IDEAL self according to Jung). These insight dreams give us guidance during critical phases of our life and help us to become more genuine in our future plans and endeavors.
2- Synchronicity: This describes how our dreams can predict events in our waking life- de ja vu dreams and how our dreams can reflect events which have already occurred in our waking life. The synchronicity is that our dream life is in sync with our waking life. Do your dream predict events OR do they reflect events which have already happened?
3- Compensatory theory: We compensate in our dream for what we lack in our waking lives. When we fall short of our IDEAL self, we dream that we succeed. We compensate for short coming in our dreams. Do your dreams reveal how you'd really like your life to be?
4-Amplification: Objects, people and events in our dreams can represent more than they appear on the surface. Brainstorm each object , person, or event and think about how these objects, people and events serve to help reveal aspects of your true self, your wants and desires.

Our dreams reveal our true self. Images come from our personal unconscious and collective unconscious (a universal, innate realm that is common in all people) and appear in our dreams to help us explore our true nature. Stock character, as Jung refers to them, archetypes, help reveal to us how we can better reach our ideal self.